Psych 315 Exam 1

subjective well-being (SWB)

A person's experience of how happy he or she is generally in life. .

relationship status

Independent of relationship quality, the type of relationship an individual is currently experiencing (e.g., dating, married, divorced, widowed, or no relationship).

relationship quality

How good or how bad an individual judges his or her relationship to be.

relationship transition .

A change from one relationship status to another, as when a single person forms a domestic partnership, or when a married couple separates or divorces.

selection effect

A bias that can arise in research because preexisting characteristics of people lead them to choose, or "select themselves into" certain experiences.

protection effect .

An association between two phenomena whereby one causes improvement or benefits in the other; for example, marriage appears to afford protection through improved health.

social control theory .

The view that social relationships regulate, and impose limits on, how individuals behave by encouraging people to conform to social norms; weaker relationships increase the occurrence of deviant behavior.

pairbond

A connection between two people who have some degree of emotional and/or practical investment in each other, often with the purpose of reproducing.

natural selection

The process by which organisms that are best adapted to their environment survive and produce more offspring, thereby passing on genes to the next generation; the basis of Darwin's theory of evolution.

Fitness (evolutionary)

The qualities of an organism that improve its chances of producing surviving offspring.

interdependence

The mutual influence two people have over each other; the defining feature of any relationship. As relationships are characterized by bidirectional interdependence, both members have the capacity to affect each other's thoughts, feelings, choices, and behaviors.

impersonal relationship

A relationship that is formal and task-oriented, shaped more by the social roles individuals are filling than by their unique personal qualities.

personal relationship

An interdependent relationship between two people who consider each other to be special and unique.

closeness

A property of relationships that is reflected in the strength, frequency, and diversity of the influences partners have over each other. .

intimate relationship

A relationship characterized by strong, sustained, mutual influence across a wide range of interactions, typically including lustful desire and the possibility of sexual involvement.

romantic love

In Sternberg's framework, love characterized by passion and intimacy, but low levels of commitment, such as a summer romance.

fatuous love

In Sternberg's framework, love characterized by passion and commitment, but low levels of genuine intimacy, such as a whirlwind, Hollywood-style romance.

companionate love

In Sternberg's framework, love characterized by intimacy and commitment, but low levels of passion, such as a long-term partnership in which sexual passion has dwindled.

consummate love

In Sternberg's framework, love characterized by high levels of passion, intimacy, and commitment.

passion

A strong feeling of attraction, excitement, intense preoccupation, and sexual interest in another person.

intimacy

A sense of psychological closeness in a relationship, often accompanied by openness, trust, and authentic friendship.

commitment

The intention to be in a relationship, including efforts to maintain it; investing in a relationship to help ensure that it lasts.

psychoanalysis .

Originating with Freud, the theory that popularized the distinction between the conscious and unconscious mind.

radical behaviorism

Originating with Skinner, the idea that behaviors are shaped (or "conditioned") by their consequences, leaving no room for complex cognition or meaning.

theory

An interconnected set of beliefs, knowledge, and assumptions that relate to understanding a phenomenon.

evolutionary psychology

A field within psychology guided by the idea that the brain evolved in response to selection pressures leading some capacities to be associated with more successful reproduction, and others to be associated with less successful reproduction; as a theory of intimate relationships, it explains mating preferences and behaviors in terms of their adaptive functions.

sexual selection

A mechanism of evolution whereby features of an organism that contribute to successful reproduction (such as helping the organism attract or compete for mates) are passed on to future generations.

psychological mechanism

One of many evolved preferences, capacities, responses, and strategies characterizing the human species that enable the implementation of some function or adaptation; often associated with the evolutionary perspective on intimate relationships.

theory of parental investment

Trivers's observation that sexual selection pressures will vary according to the amount of energy and resources each parent must invest to raise surviving offspring.

cross-cultural studies

Research designed to compare and contrast behaviors, beliefs, and values across populations that vary in their culture, ethnicity, or country of origin.

attachment theory

A theory of intimate relationships proposing that the relationships formed in adulthood are shaped by the nature of the bonds formed with primary caregivers during infancy and early childhood.

attachment figure

A person an individual depends on as a source of comfort, care, and security.

attachment behavior system

A set of behaviors and reactions that helps ensure a developing child's survival by keeping the child in close physical contact with caregivers.

felt security

The sense of safety and protection that allows a developing child to explore the world and take risks.

working model of attachment

Psychological structures that represent the conscious and unconscious beliefs, expectations, and feelings people have about themselves, others, and relationships; formed during infancy and childhood through experiences with caregivers. Also called internal working model.

attachment style

A person's relatively stable beliefs about the likelihood of other people providing support and care when needed. The four basic attachment styles are secure, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful.

secure attachment

A style of attachment characterized by positive views of the self and others, thus enabling effective interpersonal relationships.

preoccupied attachment

A style of attachment characterized by a positive view of others but a low sense of self-worth.

dismissing attachment

A style of attachment characterized by a positive view of the self and a negative view of others; dismissing people are satisfied with solitude and doubtful that an intimate partner would improve their life.

fearful attachment

A style of attachment characterized by negative views of the self and others; fearful people long for social contact but tend to withdraw to protect themselves from being hurt.

social exchange theory

A theory of intimate relationships proposing that participants in all social interactions pursue their self-interest through the exchange of social goods, such as status, approval, and information.

dyad

A group consisting of two people; the smallest possible social group.

interdependence theory

A version of social exchange theory that focuses on the rules predicting how partners will behave toward each other, and how they evaluate the outcomes of their actions.

reward

In social exchange theory, one of the concrete benefits provided by a relationship, such as money, housing, food, and protection.

cost

In social exchange theory, any consequence of being in a relationship that prevents partners from meeting their needs and desires.

material reward

In social exchange theory, one of the concrete benefits provided by a relationship, such as money, housing, food, and protection.

social rewards

In social exchange theory, one of the benefits people derive from relationships, including companionship, validation, and security.

opportunity cost

In social exchange theory, the idea that pursuing one rewarding experience (e.g., a relationship with one person) prevents the ability to pursue other potential rewards (e.g., a particular career choice).

comparison level (CL)

In social exchange theory, the standard against which partners in a relationship compare their experiences to decide whether they are satisfied in their relationship.

subjective probability

In social exchange theory, a person's judgments about the likelihood of different possible outcomes of his or her actions.

dependence

In social exchange theory, the degree to which a person feels free to leave a relationship; a function of how a relationship compares to possible alternatives.

alternative

In social exchange theory, all the possible relationship options apart from a current relationship, including being alone.

barrier

In social exchange theory, any force outside of a relationship that acts to keep partners together.

comparison level for alternatives (CL alt )

In social exchange theory, a person's perceptions of the possible alternatives to a current relationship, independent from comparison level (CL).

investment

In social exchange theory, a resource a couple shares in a relationship that would be lost following a breakup.

commitment (Social Exchange Theory)

The intention to be in a relationship, including efforts to maintain it; investing in a relationship to help ensure that it lasts.

social learning theory

A theory of intimate relationships proposing that people learn about their relationships from their interactions with their partners, such that positive interactions strengthen initial satisfaction, whereas negative interactions and unresolved conflicts decrease satisfaction.

escape conditioning

The reinforcing of behaviors that lead to the end of a negative experience.

social ecological model

A theory of intimate relationships that describes how stresses, supports, and constraints in the environment may affect the way partners think, feel, and act in a relationship.

stressor

An event or circumstance that makes demands on a person and requires some kind of adjustment, response, or adaptation.

coercion theory

An offshoot of social learning theory, the idea that partners may unintentionally reinforce each other's undesirable patterns by giving in only when a certain negative behavior has grown particularly intense.

interpretation of the event

The way a couple or a family defines a stressful experience, as a challenge to be overcome or a catastrophe to be endured; represented by C in the ABC-X model.

double ABC-X model

A revision of the ABC-X model that recognizes how each element in the original model may change over time as a couple responds to a stressful event.

negative reciprocity

An interpersonal pattern in which one person responds to the other's negative behavior with a negative behavior of his or her own; a common experience in distressed relationships.

stress pile-up

The accumulating consequences of a stressful event that can themselves be as stressful as or even more stressful than the original event.

lifespan study

A longitudinal research design that gathers data from individuals repeatedly over the course of their lives.

microsystem

A level in Bronfenbrenner's social ecological model of development consisting of the immediate environment that directly impacts individuals and couples, including their living situation, stressful life events, and the presence or absence of other people.

psychological constructs

An abstract concept (such as love, trust, or commitment) that relationship scientists strive to define, measure, and study.

mesosystem

A level in Bronfenbrenner's social ecological model of development, consisting of the broader social context, including the neighborhoods, social networks, and institutions in which relationships take place.

operationalization

A key stage in the research process in which an abstract concept (a psychological construct) is translated into concrete terms so that predictions about that concept can be tested.

macrosystem

The broadest level in Bronfenbrenner's social ecological model of development, consisting of sources of influence that are far removed from the individual's or couple's direct experience but are still influential, such as national, historical, and cultural contexts.

fixed-response scale

A survey tool that presents a predetermined set of questions, each with a predetermined set of answers from which to choose.

ABC-X model

An early social ecological model of intimate relationships that explains how external stressors (A), a family's resources (B), and their interpretation of a stressful event (C) combine to affect the outcome of a crisis (X). Also called crisis theory .

open-ended question

A question that does not have a specific set of response options, thereby allowing respondents to answer in their own words.

qualitative research

An approach to data collection that relies primarily on open-ended questions and other loosely structured information rather than on fixed-response scales and questionnaires.

construct validity

The extent to which an operationalization adequately represents a particular psychological construct.

crisis

A couple's experience of and response to a stressful event, represented by X in the ABC-X model.

social desirability effect

The extent to which an operationalization adequately represents a particular psychological construct.

social desirability effect

A tendency for research participants to provide answers that they think will make them look good to the researchers.

observational measure

An approach to data collection permitting direct access to relationship events, typically via video or audio recordings. .

item-overlap problem

The exploration of the same idea by two different self-report tools, leading to inflated estimates of the correlations between the concepts they measure.

global measure

A measurement tool for assessing relationship satisfaction that asks partners only about their evaluations of their relationship as a whole.

interrater reliability

In the coding of observational data, the extent to which different observers agree that a specified behavior has or has not occurred.

self-report

A research participant's own descriptions and evaluations of his or her experiences. .

reactivity

A change in behavior in response to knowing the behavior is being observed.

indirect measure

An approach to data collection in which respondents either do not know or cannot control the information they are providing.

reaction time

The time it takes to recognize and respond to a stimulus when it is flashed briefly on a screen.

implicit attitude

The automatic tendency to associate a stimulus with positive or negative feelings.

multiple-method approach

Operationalizing the constructs of interest in different ways, so the limitations of each measurement strategy may eventually cancel each other out, allowing the effects of greatest interest to emerge clearly.

correlational research

A research design that examines the naturally occurring associations among variables; used for answering descriptive questions.

causation

The capacity of one event or circumstance to directly produce a change in another.

cross-sectional data

In correlational research, data that have been collected at one time; they describe a cross-section, or a snapshot, of a single moment.

daily diary approach

A longitudinal research design in which participants provide data every day at about the same time.

experience sampling

A longitudinal research design in which data from participants are collected throughout the day, thereby capturing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors close to when they occur.

sentiment override

The tendency for partners' feelings about their relationship to overwhelm their perceptions of specific behaviors and aspects of their relationship.

attrition bias

In longitudinal research, a bias caused by participants dropping out, leading to a final sample that differs from the initial sample in important ways.

experimental research

A research design in which researchers manipulate one element of a phenomenon or situation to determine its effects on some outcome or predicted consequence; used for examining questions of explanation and causation.

external validity

The extent to which results obtained in an experimental setting generalize to different contexts.

archival research

A research design in which the researcher examines data that have already been gathered by someone else, often for an unrelated purpose.

content analysis

The process of coding open-ended materials in order to identify and quantify important phenomena.