EQ3- How are human rights used as arguments for political + military intervention?

4 geopolitical interventions to address human rights issues

1. Development aid

2. Trade embargos

3. Military aid

4. Indirect + direct military action

Development aid + example

Financial aid given to developing countries to promote human rights.

• given by multilateral + bilateral aid

• UN General assembly asked wealthy countries to commit 0.7% GNI a year to aid- only 6/20 met target in 2015, UK made it a legal requirement in 2015

EXAMPLES

UK announced £100M 3 year package in 2022

• designed to support Ukraine economy + reduce its reliance on gas imports from Russia, and countries taking in its refugees e.g. Moldova

Trade embargo + example

A ban that restricts trade with a particular country

• encourages country to change actions or their economy will decline

• often used in response to perceived threats to international security or for countries with a record of human rights abuses

EXAMPLES

EU imposed arms embargo, incl. technology military services

• encourage cease to actions in Ukraine as they threaten territorial integrity + independence of Ukraine

Military aid + example

Countries provide money, weapons or military training to help stop human rights abuses e.g. terrorism, overthrow a dictator

• sometimes given to opposition groups fighting for democracy against authoritarian gov’s

EXAMPLES

US aid packages to Ukraine worth $775M each included rockets, ammunition, drones, etc in 2022

• helps defence across long term

Indirect military action + example

Military equipment provided by 1 country to another/ military group within a country

• done in support of 1 side of a civil conflict

EXAMPLE

2017 British army personnel trained Nigerian forces to improve security + fight Islamic militant group Boko Haram

Direct military action + example

Armed forces from 1 country engaged in conflict to another

EXAMPLE

2003- USA+UK among a coalition of countries sent troops + carried out airstrikes in Iraq against gov of Saddam Hussain

Who promotes geopolitical intervention and how?

1. IGO’s- UN, EU, WB, WTO

• impose trade embargos, put conditions on aid, express disapproval of HR abuses

2. NGO’s- Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch

• campaign for protection of human rights, petition+ lobbying of authoritarian gov’s e.g. free protestors imprisoned unfairly, encourage IGO’s and govs to intervene in HR abuses

• e.g. Amnesty International campaigns with local NGO’s in Afghanistan to try improve education for women

3. National governments

Why is it difficult for IGO’s, NGO’s and governments to agree on action?

• could be due to political + economic purposes/ self-interest e.g. oil reserves

  • e.g. UK performed airstrikes in Libya 2011 to protect civilians, but it is claimed it was to gain access to more oil reserves

• risk of intervention could lead to wider conflict + injury to civilians

• cutting off aid could reduce countries ability to support citizen’s basic needs

• organisations/ countries involved could have different aims e.g. increase global influence or protecting human rights

How do Western Governments use human rights as a basis for intervention?

Offering aid with conditions attached e.g. give aid if they improve the education of women

Negotiating trade agreements e.g. lowering import tariffs

Military intervention for serious breaches of HR

How does human rights interventions challenge national sovereignty?

• One nation interferes with governance of another.

• Create tension between national sovereignty + R2P (states have responsibility to protect their populations from genocide, war, etc, and the international community has responsibility to assist).

Libya 2011- challenge to national sovereignty

PROBLEM: civil war erupted against Gaddafi (ruler) who violated HR + funded global terrorism.

INTERVENTION: UN authorised bombing raids by France + UK in support of civilians + rebels. Gaddafi was then killed.

NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY CONCERNS: 5 countries on UN security councils were concerned there was insufficient evidence for interference.

Real reason for interference was regime(gov) change.

Libya has 10th largest oil reserve- could be for this reason.

Types of development aid

1. Community development

2. Emergency aid

3. Bilateral aid

4. Multilateral aid

5. Loans

Development aid pros+cons

Failure of aid in Haiti

NEED FOR AID

• 2010 earthquake left 220k dead + 1.5M homeless

• outbreak of cholera in tent cities killed >9k ppl

AID

• over £12bn aid pledged by gov’s, IGO’s (UN), NGO’s (Red Cross + Oxfam)

• money was used in diff ways e.g. emergency shelters + restore access to clean water

CONCERN

• 2yrs after, 500k still lived in temporary shelters with no electricity plumbing, sewerage

• condition for ½ money to be spent within 18 months, but only 40% spent

• gov + NGO’s were unable to coordinate + use money effectively

Example of loans as development aid- WB

• $230M in aid to help with issues e.g. building resistance to climate change

-conditions: Uganda had to meet 197 separate conditions before given funding

-environment: prioritise economic development over environment- leads to displacement of indigenous groups + environmental degradation

Success of development aid

• Malaria

  • increased funding $1.7bn allowed more malaria control interventions

  • international aid programmes (Net for Life)

  • global death rate from malaria fell 25% between 2000-20, preventing 6.2M deaths

  • areas with high coverage- bed nets+treatment programmes, have recorded ↓ by 50% e.g. Tanzania, Zambia

• Gender equality

  • 45% UN bilateral aid targeted to gender equality

  • WB target on S+E African primary aged girls- 25M more enrolled than early 2000

  • loans + microfinances- 68% ↑ in earnings

  • still 10% difference in labour force participation between men+women

Problems with development aid

• Aid dependency- hinders development

  • gov relies on money instead of fixing tax systems/ raising revenue to self-fund development projects + basic services

  • long-term development planning is difficult- amount of aid received is uncertain

• Corruption + inequality

  • used by political elite to ensure they remain in power + repress citizens- buying votes e.g. Zambian former president 2009 charged with embezzling $12M aid money

  • minority groups pay price for misuse of aid through reduced access to services, increased costs

Impact of economic development on the environment, minority groups + human rights

Nile Delta oil production

Environment	Minority groups	HR
40M litres spilled every year across delta- pollute ground+surface water, and soil Mangrove forests regularly damaged	Access to clean water limited due to oil spills Traditional livelihoods (fishing, agriculture) damaged by oil spills- disrupt traditions+make ppl poorer	Conflict over oil reserves led to human rights abuses- Nigerian military burnt down Ogoni tribe villages, making 300k homeless

Accounts for 70% export revenue, oil accounts for $10bn per year

What is land grabbing?

Acquisition of large areas of land in developing countries by domestic + TNC’s, gov’s, + individuals. Land may be taken over + not paid for.

• used as a resource for bribes- land is the greatest asset

Impact of economic development on env, minority groups, HR.

Land grabbing in Kenya

• more soil degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity

• ↑ chance of food insecurity due to focus on commercial agriculture over food production

• 85% people rely on agriculture for livelihoods- reduces rights to decent standard of living + food

Examples of military intervention driven by geopolitical interests, but justified by HR

• 1995 NATO intervention Bosnia

  • air + bombing campaign against Bosnian Serbs who attacked muslims

  • HR justification: Serb leader convicted genocide + war crimes, 8k Bosnian Muslims killed

  • geopolitical interest: NATO did not want Bosnian war+conflict spilling over into other European countries, destabilising the region

• 2003 invasion in Iraq

  • US-led coalition incl. UK, Poland, Australia, invaded Iraq + overthrew regime

  • HR justification: Saddam Hussein authoritarian rule- mass killings, WMD e.g. chemical weapons, torture against Kurds+Shiites

  • geopolitical interest: safeguard oil supply from the Middle East

Example of military aid to support countries with questionable HR records

Saudi Arabia + UK

• SA has an undemocratic regime, poor women’s rights e.g. fathers are default guardians of children

• UK has supplied SA with $23bn in weapons since 2015

  • due to trading relationship- SA has invested over £60bn in UK

• has supported Yemen gov fight against rebel groups

• has led to HR violations- bomb attacks of civilians, 17.5k deaths+injuries

What is the ‘War on Terror’ + its HR justifications?

A global battle against terrorist organisations.

• USA sent troops to Iraq + Afghanistan, unapproved by the UN

• justified by: Iraq holds weapons of mass destruction, concerns over more terrorist attacks e.g. 9/11, protecting human rights e.g. Saddam Hussein’s rule in Iraq, defend USA

How did the USA violate human rights + the UDHR during the war on terror?

• US soldiers tortured prisoners in Iraq

• those accused of being terrorists were flown to Guatanamo Bay- tortured + held without trial for years

  • organisations like Al-Qaeda used this violation to recruit new members, and ↑ risk of captured Americans for harsher treatment