Culture, Minorities, & Identity Models

EPPP

Utilization of mental health services for racial/ethnic groups

• African Americans get less MH services in ER & psychiatric settings than whites

• African Americans & Latinos receive less treatment for depression than whites

• Asians are under-represented in out-patient & in-patient settings

Utilization of mental health services for racial/ethnic groups

• African Americans get less MH services in ER & psychiatric settings than whites

• African Americans & Latinos receive less treatment for depression than whites

• Asians are under-represented in out-patient & in-patient settings

• Premature termination rates for racial/ethnic groups

  • 50% of minorities drop out after 1st session

    • compared to only 30% of whites

    • African Americans have high rates

    • Asians have low rates

    • Latinos have similar rates to whites

  • Ethnic matching decreases rates for Latinos, Asians, & whites (not African Americans)

Barriers impacting MH treatment

• stigma, mistrust, language, SES, & a lack of culturally competent providers

Ethnic matching

• Decreases premature terminate rates for Latinos, Asians, & whites (not African Americans)

• improvement in treatment outcomes for Latino clients (not for any other groups)

• has a small positive effect on the # of sessions client attended

Ethnic matching

Effects

• Decreases premature termination rates for Latinos, Asians, & whites (not African Americans)

• improvement in treatment outcomes for Latino clients (not for any other groups)

• has a small positive effect on the # of sessions the client attended

Factors that impact its effects

• ethnicity identity

• level of acculturation

• gender

• client’s level of trust in Whites

American Indian/Alaskan Native Clients

• effective psychotherapy includes:

  • cultural sensitivity, respect for traditions, understanding historical trauma, & including community & family values into therapy session

• attribute illness to “result of disharmony”

• focus on extended family & tribe than individual

  • social decision-making

• present focused & listening is more important than talking

• offer therapy w/ values, client-centered, problem-solving approach

• network therapy → include family & community members into treatment process

Asian American clients

• be aware of client’s acculturation status

  • it influences their language, customs, social relationships, & attitude toward mental illness & therapy

• greater influence on group (family & community) than individual

• adhere to hierarchical family structure & traditional gender roles

• focus on interdependence, mutual loyality, & obligation in interdependence relationship

• prioritize harmony and face-saving

  • may be reluctant to express emotions

  • values restraint of strong emotions → disrupts peace & brings shame to family

• Therapy: directive, structural, problem-solving focused on alleviating specific symptoms

  • encourage client to identify goals & solutions

• They expect concrete advice

  • view therapist as an expert/authority figure

• Mental health problems often expressed as somatic symptoms

• Modesty & self-depreciation are not necessarily signs of low self-esteem

Hispanic/Latino American clients

• emphasis on family welfare & stress allegiance to the family over other concerns

• interdependence is healthy & necessary. They highly value connectedness & sharing

• unacceptable to share personal details w/ a stranger (problems are handled within the family)

• therapist should use active & directive, multi-modal approach

• focus on behavior, affect, cognitions, interpersonal relationships, & biological functioning

• family therapy & reinforce their view of familismo & extended family

• initial contact is formalismo but emphasize “personalismo”

• inflexible sex role (patriarchal), & parent-child bon stronger than husband-wife bond

• recognize acculturational degrees within family members (often source of individual & family problems

• consider religious factors, may express mental health problems as somatic complaints

• under utilization of mental health services, despite high need for subgroups

• barriers: language, immigration status, stigma, & limited access to culturally competent providers

• May prefer informal support (church; family) before seeking professional services.

LGBT clients

• high psychological problems:

• depression, anxiety, substance use, & increased risk for suicidality

• problems due to prejudice & discrimination -

• problems are not b/c of their sexual orientation

LBBTQ clients

• High psychological problems:

  • depression, anxiety, substance use, & increased risk for suicidality

  • problems due to prejudice & discrimination → not b/c of their sexual orientation

• mental health disparities in LGBT individuals due to minority stress

  • chronic stress from stigma, discrimination, internalized homophobia, & societal marginalization

Internalized Homophobia

• individuals harbor negative attitudes towards their own sexual orientation due to societal stigma, leading to feelings of shame and self-hatred.

• accept society’s negative evaluation of them & incorporate it into their self-concepts

• consequences:

  • low-self-esteem/depression, anxiety, self-doubt, self-hatred, feelings of powerless, & difficulty in forming healthy relationships.

• treatment:

  • correct cognitive distortions, assertiveness training, coping skills, & activating social support systems

Coming out

Milestones:

• 1st same-sex attraction

• self-labeling

• 1st same-sex contact

• 1st disclosure

• adolescent males have earlier onset for 1st 3 milestones (compared to other groups)

• no gender difference in age of 1st disclosure

• men & women 18-24 came out earlier than older men & women

Minority Stress

• resulting from stigma, discrimination, societal exclusion, prejudice, & social disadvantage

Effective treatment:

• CBT & ACT for minority stress & internalization stigma

  • focus on addressing negative thought patterns and promoting psychological flexibility.

• trauma-informed care & affirmative psychotherapy

  • to support identity development, self-acceptance, & resilience

Acculturative stress

• experienced by individuals who are adapting to a new/dominant culture

• can lead to intergenerational conflict if kids acculturate faster than their parents

Intersectionality

• social identities (race, identity, sexual orientation, & SES) shape unique experience of oppression or privilege

Hispanic cultural terms

Personalismo

• valuing warm, personable, & respectful relationships

• clients often expect warmth before getting into deep issues

Respecto

• respect for authority figures, elders, social hierarchies, & traditional gender roles

Familismo

• strong loyalty, obligation, & interconnectedness w/ family

• a cultural value in Latino communities that prioritizes family relationships and obligations

Curanderismo

• illness can arise from natural or supernatural forces that impact physical, emotional, and/or spiritual functioning

• Catholicism & folk healing traditions based on a holistic view of health, a part of Hispanic cultures

• may influence beliefs about illness & healing

• folk healing, not psychopathology.

Ho‘oponopono

• traditional Hawaiian practice of reconciliation and conflict resolution, focused on:

  • Restoring harmony

  • Repairing relationships

  • Addressing interpersonal and spiritual imbalance

• It is family- and community-centered, not individual psychotherapy.

• Healing ritual for “setting it right” & afterwards they share a meal together

Collectivism vs Individualism

• emphasis on group needs, family, & community over individual desires

• common in Asian, Hispanic/Latino, & Native American cultures

• personal autonomy & self-expression

• mainstream US culture

“loss of face”

• concern about embarrassment, shame, & dishonor affecting self or family’s reputation

• common in Asian & Hispanic communities

historical/intergenerational trauma

• American Indian & African American communities

• psychological distress passed down through generations due to traumatic experiences that affect an entire group.

  • It encompasses issues like displacement, discrimination, and cultural loss.

• can impact mental health, trust, & help-seeking behavior

Somatization

• expressing psychological distress through physical symptoms, often without a medical cause.

  • physical ailments, like pain, fatigue, headaches, or digestive issues → may be misdiagnosed

• common in Asian, Hispanic, & some immigrant communities

Cultural competence

Awareness of assumptions, values, & beliefs

• aware of their own beliefs & values & those of others that can be detrimental to members of diverse groups

Knowledge of the worldviews of their diverse clients

Skills

• modalities & interventions that are appropriate

• recognize limitations for helping clients

Processes necessary when working with diverse clients

• Credibility:

  • client’s perception of therapist as an expert & trustworthy

  • influenced by ascribed & achieved statuses & cultural knowledge

• Giving:

  • client’s perception that they are getting something out of therapy

ascribed status

• social position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life

  • based on traits like race, gender, ethnicity, or family background

  • an individual has little to no control over

gift giving

• Symbolic expression of respect/relationship (e.g., reporting gains, effort toward goals); explore meaning, don’t assume manipulation

• practice of providing “gifts” as a way to show appreciation or build rapport in therapy

• ritual in Asian cultures

Acculturation

• process of cultural & psychological change

• can involve changes in behavior, values, identity, & attitudes (enduring evaluation toward someone or something)

Berry’s Model of Acculturation

• 4 strategies based on maintenance of heritage, culture, & adopting the host culture

• Assimilation

  • adopt majority culture & reject heritage culture

• Separation

  • reject majority culture & maintain heritage culture

• Integration

  • keep heritage culture & adopt majority culture

• Marginalization

  • reject both (host & heritage) cultures

Kitano’s Model

• A framework for culturally competent assessment with ethnic minority clients, focus on Asian immigrants & Japanese Americans

• it is multi-dimensional - not just about assimilation

• Misdiagnosis happens when acculturation is ignored

• 3 dimensions:

  • Language Competence

    • Proficiency in heritage vs host culture language

    • Impacts assessment validity & rapport

  • Social Participation

    • Involvement in heritage community vs host society

    • Degree of integration vs isolation

  • Identity/Self-Perception 

    • bicultural vs monocultural identity

Phinney & Devich-Navarro’s Model Acculturation

• Acculturation is not linear. Individuals can maintain their heritage culture and participate in the host culture simultaneously.

• categorizes patterns of cultural involvement

• It focuses on how individuals balance their ethnic identity (connection to their minority group) with their American identity (connection to the mainstream society).

3 stages of ethnic identity

• Unexamined Ethnic Identity

  • has little awareness or exploration of ethnic background

• Ethnic Identity Search/Moratorium

  • exploration in mainstream culture due to challenges or discrimination

• Advanced Ethnic Identity

  • clear, secure sense of ethnic belonging

  • Blended Biculturalism

    • integrates both cultures into a cohesive identity,

    • bicultural identity

  • Alternating Biculturalism

    • switches between 2 cultures depending on social context & situational demands - rather than blending them

  • Separated Biculturalism

    • strongly identify with heritage culture & only minimally with mainstream America

Client’s worldview is determined by:

• locus of control (LoC) & locus of responsibility (LoR)

  • internal vs external

    • belief of their choices/life & the cause of their problems

Locus of Control vs Locus of Responsibility

Internal vs External

• IC → Client believes that they are in control of their life & their choices

• EC → Client believes that they are NOT in control of their life or their life choices  (their life is governed by outside forces or powerful others)

  • They feel powerless & think that their personal efforts have little impact on their life

• IR → Client feels personally responsible for their problems due to personal inadequacies or mistakes

• ER → Client feels they are NOT personally responsible for their problems (believes the environment, social structures, or prejudice are the cause of their problems)

  • They believe that their problems are attributed to social, economic, or cultural systems

Client with IC & IR

• Represents typical Western worldview

• Client believes they are responsible for their life choices & believes their problems are their fault

• Therapy should focus on self-determination and personal growth.

  • If client faces systemic barriers, watch for & address excessive self-blame.

Client with EC & IR

• Self-Blame

• Client feels that they do not have control over their life/choices (governed by others/outside forces), but their problems are their own fault

  • They hold beliefs that their failure is due to bad luck & feel guilty about not trying more

• Help the client distinguish between what is their fault and what is societal prejudice.

• Build self-esteem by shifting some of the blame onto systemic factors.

• Therapy should include helping the, recognize external influences & build skills

Client with EC & ER

• Learned Helplessness

  • holds beliefs of social inequality & that “things never change.”

• Client feels they do not have control over their life/choices & believes their problems are due to external forces (environment, prejudice, social structures)

• Re-ignite their sense of agency.

• Validate their experience of systemic oppression while teaching specific skills to navigate or challenge it.

• Therapy should include developing resilience & coping skills, advocacy/enhancing self-efficacy & connecting to community resources and fostering their involvement.

Client with IC & ER

• The Goal

• Client believes they are in control of their life/choices & their problems are not their fault but because of external forces (environment, social structures, or prejudice).

• Support the client in maintaining their internal sense of power while acknowledging that the system is flawed.

• Therapy should include encouragement, personal advocacy/self-efficacy, engagement in systemic change, & community involvement.

• This is often seen as the healthiest "militant" or "empowered" stance for marginalized groups.

LoC & LoR worldview of a white middle class therapist

• internal LoC & internal LoR

  • in control of their fate through personal actions & recognizes their responsibility in societal change.

• may misinterpret African American client w/ External LoC & External LoR as lacking ambition or motivation, potentially overlooking the systemic barriers they face.

African American client with EC & ER worldview

• The worldview is NOT because of low ego & excessive passivity - but b/c behavior is in reaction to racial oppression.

• Systemic barriers and societal inequities impact their worldview

Common worldview of minorities

• IC & ER

  • Client believes they are in control of their life & their choices & their problems are not their fault but because of external forces (environment, social structures, or prejudice)

• Client is aware of racial/cultural identity & the impact oppression has on their life

• They often feel a lack of control over societal outcomes but believe their actions can influence personal circumstances.

  • This reflects the impact of systemic inequalities on their perspectives.

• Worst pairing match is w/ therapist w/ IC & IR (therapist believes they have personal control & responsibility)

  • This type of client will challenge the therapist’s authority & trustworthiness & be reluctant to disclose in therapy

Cultural Encapsulation

• therapist defines everyone’s reality according to their cultural assumptions & stereotypes

  • disregard differences & their cultural bias

  • ignores evidence that disconfirms their beliefs & relies on strategies & techniques to solve problems

Emic

• Culture-specific perspective that studies behaviors or beliefs within a particular culture to understand it on its own terms

• learning about rules & traditions

  • understanding a culture from the viewpoint of its members.

Etic

• Universal perspective that studies behavior across all cultures to find universal patterns, norms, & principles (e.g., parenting styles)

• Views everyone as the same (focuses on comparative analysis of cultures)

• Traditional psychological theories & practices reflect this approach (overlooks cultural nuances and differences)

High-Content Communication Style (& best therapy approach)

• Context, non-verbal cues, and relationships are crucial for understanding the message.

• Person relies heavily on shared knowledge and values

• Common in collectivist cultures (Japan, China, & Arab countries)

• Therapy approach:

  • words carry less meaning - the surrounding context is critical

    • Therapist should be aware of possible “hidden messages” → pay attention to relationships, tone, & gestures

  • An unaware therapist may misinterpret their nonverbal communication as unwillingness to communicate or a lack of ability

Low-Content Communication Style (& best therapy approach)

• meaning conveyed explicitly with direct verbal messages

• context & nonverbal cues have less value

• common in Individualist cultures (US, Germany, Scandinavia)

• Therapy should focus on explicit goals & structured interventions

  • offer clear, concrete, direct feedback

Internalized Oppression

• acting out against the system

• system beating, system blaming, avoidance of whites, & denial of political significance of race

Denial of political significance of race

• attempting to earn acceptance thru buying material goods, status, & educational degree to increase self-worth & escaping problems (alcohol, drugs, food)

Conceptual Incarceration

• adopting White Anglo-Saxon Protestant worldview & lifestyle

Survival Mechanisms

• psychological strategies that individuals use to cope with oppression (including stress, trauma, or emotional pain, often unconsciously).

• African Americans adopt or disguise negative feelings & protect themselves from being harmed or exploited

Types of Paranoia

• Cultural vs Functional

• Cultural → healthy reaction to racism

  • Client does not want to disclose to White therapist due to fear of being hurt or misunderstood (wrongly being labeled with having functional paranoia)

• Functional Paranoia → unhealthy illness

  • Client is unwilling to disclose regardless of therapist’s race/ethnicity due to mistrust & suspicion of others

    • This belief impacts therapeutic relationships and personal well-being.

    • Therapist choice should be based on competence

Intercultural Non-Paranoiac Discloser

• Low Cultural & Functional Paranoia

• Categorized as either IC-IR or IC-ER

• They do NOT view the therapist’s race or background as a primary barrier to sharing.

Therapy approach:

• Foster "Healthy Paranoia" (Discernment):

  • If the client is too open (Non-Paranoiac), they may be prone to Internalized Responsibility (IR) → blaming themselves for issues that are actually systemic.

  • Help them distinguish between personal failings and environmental microaggressions or institutional bias.

• Acknowledge the "Invisible" Gap:

  • Even if the client doesn't see a cultural barrier, the therapist should still validate the client's cultural context.

  • Don't let the client’s openness lead you to ignore the sociopolitical factors affecting their life.

Functional Paranoiac

• High Functional & Low Cultural Paranoia

• The person exhibits unhealthy levels of paranoia (high levels of “healthy” suspicion due to real-world experience of racism oppression). 

• Client whose pervasive mistrust and unwillingness to self-disclose are rooted in personal pathology rather than a specific reaction to external racism

• They have a general mistrust regardless of the therapist's race or ethnicity.

• The source of the nondisclosure lies primarily within the individual’s own psychological condition or illness rather than their cultural experiences.

• Therapy approach is typically IC-ER or EC-ER

  • focusing on building trust through transparency and validating their lived reality.

  • choice of therapist should be competence (rather than race or culture of therapist)

• Radical Transparency:

  • If you are from a different cultural background, acknowledge the racial/cultural difference early on.

• Validate the "Paranoia":

  • Instead of pathologizing their suspicion, treat it as a rational response to a systemic environment.

• Externalize the Problem:

  • Use an IC-ER framework. Help the client see that while they have the power to cope and thrive (IC), the source of their stress is often the system (ER), not a personal defect.

• Avoid Early Interpretation:

  • If you jump too quickly into interpreting their behavior or suggesting "internal" fixes, the client may view you as an agent of the status quo. Focus on active listening and empathy first.

• Empowerment through Advocacy:

  • Shift the focus from "fixing" the client to navigating the system. Discuss practical ways they can protect their energy and mental health while dealing with discriminatory environments.

• Treatment Goal:

  • The objective is not to "cure" the paranoia, but to help the client achieve Healthy Paranoia—the ability to distinguish between a safe space (like the therapy room) and a truly hostile environment, without losing their sense of agency.

Healthy Cultural Paranoiac

• A person has low functional paranoia & high cultural paranoia

• They will disclose to Black therapist but are reluctant to disclose to a White therapist

  • choice of behavior is b/c of past experiences related to racism and/or White therapists’ attitudes & beliefs

Therapy approach

• The goal is to distinguish between clinical paranoia (internal dysfunction) and cultural paranoia (an external reality check).

Cultural Humility & Validation

• Acknowledge that the client's mistrust is a rational response to historical and current societal stressors.

• Avoid Pathologizing:

  • Do not treat the mistrust as a symptom of a delusional disorder. Instead, frame it as a survival strategy.

• Direct Discussion of Race:

  • The therapist must be willing to discuss race, power, and privilege openly. Research suggests that "colorblind" approaches increase cultural paranoia and lead to premature termination.

Building the "Cultural Alliance"

• Because mistrust is the core feature, the therapeutic alliance takes longer to build and requires greater transparency.

• Self-Disclosure:

  • Appropriately sharing one’s own perspectives on social justice or systemic issues can help bridge the gap.

• Transparency:

  • Be ultra-clear about the "how" and "why" of therapy (e.g., explaining why you are taking notes or how a specific assessment works) to reduce the feeling of being "watched" or evaluated by an untrustworthy system.

Cognitive-Behavioral Adjustments

• Reality Testing:

  • Instead of asking "Is this thought true?", ask "In what contexts is this mistrust helpful, and in what contexts might it be hindering your goals?"

• Adaptive Coping:

  • Help the client develop a "repertoire" of responses—knowing when to maintain a protective guard and when it is safe (and beneficial) to lower it.

Empowerment & Advocacy (Social Justice Model)

• Internal vs. External Control:

  • Help the client regain a sense of agency. This involves moving from a "victim" stance to an "activist" or "survivor" stance.

• Externalizing the Problem:

  • Reinforce that the "problem" is the systemic environment (racism/discrimination), not the client's reaction to it.

Confluent Paranoiac

• Person exhibits a combination of both high cultural mistrust (a reaction to systemic racism) and high functional pathology (clincial paranoia or a personality disorder).

• Nondisclosure to Black or White therapist is due to a combination of pathology & effects of racism

• They struggle with intense distrust and suspicion toward both racial groups while being hindered by past traumas.

Therapy approach

Therapy approach for Confluent Paranoiac

• alleviate client’s pathology

• confront meaning of their paranoia (conscious awareness of antipathy towards White) &

• develop disclosure flexibility

  • Choose when, where, how, and to whom to disclose personal information

    —not encouraging more disclosure, and not encouraging secrecy.

• combines the 2 other therapy approaches

• therapist’s race/ethnicity are important to the client

homophobia replaced with

• sexual stigma; heterosexism; sexual prejudice

Sexual Stigma

• society’s negative regard for non-heterosexual behavior, identity, relationships, &/or community

• creates power & status differential between heterosexuals & homosexuals → “gays are inferior”

Heterosexism

• promotes hostility & violence against homosexuals

• beliefs & cultural ideologies about gender & sexuality that defines LGBT as “bad”

• exists in language, laws, & cultural institutions

Sexual Prejudice

• negative attitude based on sexual orientation

  • not always accurate in predicting behaviors

Stigma

• societal devaluation (structural & social)

• → society labels

Heterosexism

• structural; systemic; privileges heterosexuals

• → system favors heterosexuals

Factors associated with high levels of sexual prejudice

• heterosexual men (vs women); older; low education level; live in the South, Midwest, or rural areas; limited contact w/ homosexuals

Intersectionality

• combined effect of multiple marginalized identities that causes stress

  • example: being gay & Black

Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• 5 stages people experience as they understand themself

  • understanding their culture; dominant culture; oppressive relationship between 2 cultures

Conformity

• 1st stage of Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• preference for dominant culture & reduced/negative attitude toward their own culture

• devalues their own culture & may internalize stereotypes

• will likely prefer a therapist from dominant culture group or may distrust a therapist from their own culture

Dissonance

• 2nd stage of Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• confusion & conflict toward oneself & others from their cultural group

• growing awareness of racism, discrimination, & cultural identity

• ambivalence (mixed feelings) toward dominant & minority cultures → may feel guilt, shame, or confusion

• will likely prefer a therapist from their own culture & perceive personal problems as racial or cultural identity issues

Resistance & Immersion

• 3rd stage of Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• actively reject dominant culture and have a positive attitude toward their own cultural group. They embrace their culture & others from their cultural group

• This stage involves a deeper recognition of cultural pride & solidarity

• perceive personal problems as a result of oppression

• will likely prefer therapist from their own culture, may distrust therapist from dominant culture group

Introspection

• 4th stage of Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• uncertain about their beliefs from the 3rd stage; conflicts between loyalty & responsibility toward cultural group & personal autonomy

• prefers therapist from their own culture but may be open to a therapist from another cultural group if they share then same worldviews

• a more balanced view of both cultures emerges

  • seeking more individualized identity

Integrative Awareness

• 5th and final stage of Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model

• fulfillment toward identity & desire to eliminate oppression

• adopts a multi-cultural perspective →examine cultural values before accepting them

• individuals have achieved a balance between their cultural identity and the dominant culture & can effectively navigate between various cultural contexts

• typically, they seek therapists w/ the same worldview, attitudes, & beliefs - rather than focusing solely on cultural background.

Nigrescence Identity Development Model

• Cross describes the process of Black identity formation in African Americans, typically moving through 4 stages:

  • Pre-Encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization

    • was 5 stages now last 2 are together:

      • Internalization & Internalization-Commitment

• Individuals shift from devaluing Blackness (Pre-Encounter) towards a strong, positive Black identity, often triggered by experiences with racism, culminating in a secure self-concept that can integrate other aspects of identity.

Pre-Counter

• 1st stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• person has a worldview that devalues Black identity while prioritizing Eurocentric/White values.

• race & racial identity are low

• person adopts mainstream identity → leading to denial or avoidance of their racial identity, and are less aware of the impacts of racism.

Therapist preference for an individual in Pre-counter stage

• May prefer a therapist who shares Eurocentric values and perspectives → White therapist

• might be less aware of their racial identity and the relevance of cultural factors in therapy.

Anti-Black Substage

• part of 1st stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• person accepted negative beliefs about Blacks

  • he/she likely has low self-esteem

Encounter

• 2nd stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• exposure to an event(s) that leads to increase in race/cultural awareness that challenge their worldview.

• increased interest in developing Black identity

• person begins to confront and question their previously held beliefs about race and identity.

Therapist preference for an individual in Encounter stage

• likely will prefer Black therapist

Immersion-Emerison

• 3rd stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• ace & racial identity increase value salience/importance

• idealize Blacks & Black culture → reject White culture

• feels rage towards Whites & guilt & shame about their previous awareness of race

• 2 substages in this stage:

  • Black Involvement & Anti-White

Internalization

• 4th stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• race continues to have high salience/importance & person adopts 1 of 3 identities/orentations:

  • Pro-Black Afrocentric; Bicultural; Multi-Cultural

Pro-Black Afrocentric Oreintation

• 1 of the 3 identities adopted in the 4th stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• person works to end racism & has Healthy Cultural Paranoia

Bicultural Oreintation

• 1 of the 3 identities adopted in the 4th stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• person integrates aspects of both Black and White cultures (or other dominant culture)

Multicultural Oreintation

• 1 of the 3 identities adopted in the 4th stage of Cross’ Identity Model

• person integrates aspects of multiple cultures, valuing diversity and interactions among them.

How is Nigrescence Model different than other Models

• commintment to social justice & activism

• AND focuses on Black Identity

White Racial Identity Development Model

• Helms describes stages of racial identity development for Whites, focusing on understanding privilege and recognizing racial biases.

• involves 2 phases & 6 statuses to reduce discomfort related to racism

• each status has a different infomration processing strategy (IPS) that implemented

Contact Status

• 1 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• individuals have little awareness of racism & racial identity → unaware of their privilege

• may have racist attitudes & beliefs

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Obliviousness & Denial

Disintegration Status

• 2 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• increase in awareness of racism → triggers confusion & emotional conflict

• to reduce dissonance → may over identitfy w/ minority group(s)

• may act paternalistic (restricted view of freedom) ways

  • ex: “it’s for their own good”

• OR may retreat to White society

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Suppression of Information & Ambivalence

Reintegration Status

• 3 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• attempts to resolve moral dilemmas from previous status/phase

  • criticize & belittle minorities

• may blame minorities for their problems & view Whites as victims

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Selective Perception & Negative Out-Group Distortion

Pseudo-Independence Status

• 4 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• events cause person to question their racist views & acknowledge the roles Whites had in racism

• interested in understanding differences - only on an intellectual level

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Selective Perception & Reshaping Reality

Immersion-Emersion Status

• 5 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• explores what it means to be White

• confronts biases & begins to understand White Privilege

  • increase in understanding racism & oppression

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Hyper-vigilance & Reshaping

Autonomy Status

• 6 of 6 in Helms' White Racial Identity Development Model

• internalizes non-racist White identity

• respects similarities & differences & actively seeks interactions w/ minorities

• information processing strategy (IPS):

  • Flexibility & Complexity

Parallel Interaction

• when client & White therapist both have similar levels of racial/cultural identity

• if they are at “less advanced” status/level → leads to inertia (resistance)

Progressive Interaction

• White therapist is at least one level higher than than client

• of the 4, it’s the most effective for therapy

Regressive Interaction

• client’s level is greater than White therapist’s

• associated with conflict & early termination by client

Crossed Interaction

• when client & White therapist have opposite attitudes towards race

• therapy is often highly confrontational & contentious

  • example: Black client is in Immersion-Emerison & White therapist is predominantly Contact Status

Homosexual Identity Development Model

• Troiden developed 4 stages that reflects the process of developing a homosexual identity:

  • feelings of attraction, coming out, and integrating this identity.

Sensitization Stage

• 1st stage of Homosexual Identity Development Model

• person “feels different” than others

• often occurs in middle school

Self-Recognition Stage

• 2nd stage of Homosexual Identity Development Model

• identity confusion

• often occurs at onset of puberty

• person realizes they are attracted to same-sex

  • → leads to turmoil & confusion

Identity Assumption Stage

• 3rd stage of Homosexual Identity Development Model

• person feels more certain about their sexuality

• may try to pass as heterosexual or act consistently with stereotypes of homosexuals

Commitment/Identity Integration Stage

• 4th stage of Homosexual Identity Development Model

• person adopts homosexual lifestyle & publicly discloses sexuality

Lesbian Identity Development Model

• Sophie’s model outlines the stages lesbians experience in recognizing and embracing their sexual orientation & integrate identity.

• emphasizes interaction between self-awareness, societal attitudes, & community connection

• stages can overlap & vary by individual

1st half of the Lesbian Identity Development Model

• Identity Confusion →

• Identity Comparison →

• Identity Tolerance →

  • where she begins to accept

2nd half of the Lesbian Identity Development Model

• Identity Acceptance →

• Identity Pride →

• Identity Synthesis →

  • where she fully embraces her identity

  • facet of a complex self