AP PSYCH UNIT 6 - Development

1/31/23 - 2/14/23

Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology

Changes (physical, cognitive, social, emotional) across the lifespan.

The Prenatal Development (pre-birth)

1. Germinal Stage (conception → 2 weeks)

2. Embryonic Stage (2 → 8 weeks)

3. Fetal Stage (9 weeks → birth)

Germinal Stage

(conception → 2 weeks)

• Zygote

• DNA is assembled

Embryonic Stage

(2 → 8 weeks)

• Embryo

• Organ development & cells differentiate into different functions (e.g. eyes, ears, etc.)

** highest risk of miscarriage.*

Fetal Stage

(9 weeks → birth)

• Fetus

• Organs continue to grow/function more efficiently

• Can kick, make a fist, etc.

Critical Period

A sensitive time period when certain developmental milestones need to occur.

ex~ Prenatal development = Embryonic stage

Placenta

Provides nutrients to the baby.

Teratogens

Harmful substances that can cause birth defects.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

…

Motor Development

Muscle development & coordination

Cephalocaudal trend

Development that occurs form head to toe.

Proximodistal trend:

Development occurs from center to outward.

ex~ muscular control of the arms relative to the hands and fingers. (trying to pick up food)

Maturation

Genetically predetermined sequence of development (natural viewpoint).

ex~ like if the parent always gets/does stuff for the baby too much w/o giving the baby independance, they will be used to it & may develop later.

Understanding Developmental Norms

Age ranges where “typical” behaviors & abilities develop.

Reflexes (involuntary movements)

• As motor development progresses, reflexes disappear

• Rooting = baby turns face towards cheek being touched

• Moro = baby sprawls out when they feel like they are falling

• Babinski = fanning of feet when tickled

Newborn Senses

• Vision = worst sense; prefer larger objects, objects with contrast, prefer human faces

• Hearing = prefer high-pitched, exaggerated, expressive human voices

• Taste = prefer sweet-tasting things

• Smell = prefer smell of own mother's breast milk

__Long__itudinal Design

One group of participants studied over a long period of time.

ex~ Researchers compare curiosity ratings of a group of toddlers with that same group’s scores 15 years later.

Cross-sectional Design

Different age groups tested at one time (could be a consistent, short window of time).

ex~ same survey to 9th graders, 10th graders, etc. and ask how they liked their experience. Looking at different age groups and seeing how they experience things differently. Freshman experience v senior experience.

Cohort Effects

Occurs when differences among groups (cohorts) are due to life experiences, historical events, etc. Sometimes referred to a “generational gap”.

ex~ grandparents might hoard more than younger generations now since they experienced the great depression.

Cross-sequential Design

Starts with diff. Age groups & then following each group over a period of time (incremental check-ins).

ex~ to study depth perception in newborns & infants, researchers test babies ranging in age from 1month to 15 months once a month for a total of 10 months.

Temperament: Category Type 1

1. Easy~

• Not overly fussy

• Predictable

• Adjusts to new situations well

2. Difficult~

• More fussy/irritable

• Unpredictable

• Hard time adjusting to new situations

3. Slow-to-warm-up~

• Start off wary and then adjust well when comfortable.

Temperament: Category 2

1. Inhibited temperament~

“Guarded” - shy, timid.

2. Uninhibited temperament~

Lets guard down easily, open to new experiences.

Attachment

Emotional bond between a child & their caregiver.

Imprinting (on AP exam only)

The process where certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period (research by Konrad Lorenz & ducklings) (doesn’t occur w/ humans).

Harlow’s Theory of Attachment

Finding of Harlow’s research: there is a biological need for contact comfort (monkeys spent majority of the time w/ the cloth mother).

Separation Anxiety

Feelings of distress that young children may experience when the caregiver leaves.

Patterns of Attachment (definition)

Observed child’s behavior when mom was present, when mom left, when “stranger” enters, & when mom returns (the “reunion” was the most important)

1. Secure Attachment~

2. Anxious-Ambivalent (AKA resistant)~

3. Anxious-Avoidant~

4. Anxious-disorganized~

Secure Attachment

Uses mom as a home base while playing; when their mom leaves, the baby is upset, but can calm down easily; when mom returns = happy

Anxious-Ambivalent (AKA resistant)

Clingy to mom; when mom leaves, the baby is inconsolable; when mom returns= still upset.

Anxious-Avoidant

minimal/no interaction w/ mom at any of the 3 stages.

Anxious-Disorganized

Inconsistent behavior throughout the 3 stages.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Trust v. Mistrust

(Infant)

Can I trust the world? Are my needs being met?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Autonomy v. Shame & Doubt

(toddler)

Physical independence; directing own behaviors. Can I do this myself?

ex~ potty training. If you punish them for having an accident, they will doubt their abilities.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Initiative v. Guilt

(preschool age)

Using imagination; asking lots of questions (curiosity); freedom of choice; capable of taking on some responsibility. Creativity. Why?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Industry v. Inferiority

(elementary school age)

Learning social & academic skills; feeling competent & developing self-esteem; making comparisons. How do I compare w/ others?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Identity v. Role Confusion

(adolescence)

Deciding who or what you want to be. (in terms of occupation, beliefs, attitudes, behavioral patterns, etc.) Who am I?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Intimacy v. Isolation

(early adulthood)

Searching for committed relationships. Shall I find another or live alone?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Generativity v. Stagnation

(middle adulthood)

Being creative, productive, & nurturing of the next generation; giving back. Am I making an impact on the world?

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Integrity v. Despair

(late adulthood)

Wisdom, spiritual tranquility, a sense of wholeness & acceptance. Have I lived a good life? Do I have any regrets?

Schemas

Mental rep. Of objects, events, etc. created through experience.

Assimilation “fitting in”

adding info to an existing schema (“as is”; exactly as we have in the past).

Ex~ babies’ schema of a cup is where they suck on it, so when they see a regular cup, they use it in the same way as using a sippy cup; but it’s not the same so not successful. \n

Accommodation

If new info doesn’t fit, we have to modify an existing schema or create a new schema.

Sensorimotor Stage (1- 2 yrs)

Mental activity is confined to sensory & motor functions.

Sensorimotor Stage: Object permanence (lacking)

The ability to recognize that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. (According to Piaget, once child develops this they are no longer in the sensorimotor stage)

Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs) (1st & 2nd halves)

• First-half (2-4 yrs)~

*play pretend imaginative; display animism & egocentrism.

*begin to represent things w/ words & images (symbolic thinking).

• The second half (4-7 yrs)~

Use intuition (instead of reasoning); ask a lot of “why?” questions; egocentrism & animism begin to lessen.

Animism (displayed)

Believing inanimate objects are real & have feelings.

Ecocentrism (displayed)

When a child believes that others see the world as they do (they can’t put themselves in someone else’s shoes).

Ex~ child sees there are m&m’s in a crayon box instead of crayons, but the child still thinks that if her friend came in, that friend would also know there are m&m’s in the crayon box.

Preoperational Stage: Theory of Mind (lacking)~

The ability to understand their own & others’ mental states, & that they may differ; (feelings, perceptions & thoughts & the behaviors these might predict)

Preoperational Stage: Conservation (lacking)

The awareness that physical quantities remain the same despite changes in shape/appearance. (According to Paiget, once children develop conservation they are no longer in the preop stage.)

Ex~ two glasses of the same amount of juice, however when one was poured into a taller glass, the child thought the tall glass had more juice.

Preoperational Stage: Centration (displayed)

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

Preoperational Stage: Irreversibility (displayed)

The inability to envision reversing an action.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs)~

*developed  conservation

* lacked egocentrism & animism

*can use simple logic (adding/subtracting, can sort, etc.)

*CANNOT use higher-level through/abstract reasoning.

Formal Operational Stage (11+ yrs)

*Can use higher-level thought

*Can think abstractly

*Can use reason to hypothesize.

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

*Stages are not as fixed as he thought; more continuous more like “waves”

*Timing of stages likely diff.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Social interaction/culture/language development influences cognitive development.

*Children benefit from “mentors” who scaffold.

(ZPD is a part of this)

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Range of tasks that are too difficult to do alone, but can be accomplished w/ guidance from someone w/ experience in the task.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory (list the 3 types)

*Kohlbery was interested in the reasoning behind decision-making.

1. Preconventional

2. Conventional

3. Postconventional

Preconventional

Gaining rewards/avoiding punishments

Conventional

Following the rules/law, gaining others’ approval

Postconventional

Equality, justice, ethical principles, human rights.

Gilligan (AP Exam only)

Gender differences in moral development/reasoning.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

*Parents: strict, unsympathetic, not open for discussion.

*Children: somewhat unfriendly, withdrawn, distrustful, & possibly aggressive.

Permissive Parenting Style

*Parents: lack discipline/boundaries, give complete freedom, more like a friend.

*Children: dependent, somewhat immature, lacks self-regulation.

Authoritative Parenting Style

*Parents: uses reasoning, encourages dialogue w/children, increases child’s responsibility over time.

*Children: more friendly, cooperative, & well-adjusted.

Empathy v Sympathy

*Empathy: the ability to relate to what someone else is going through.

*Sympathy: just feeling bad for someone.

Self-regulation

Ability to control own emotions & behaviors.

Socialization

Learning appropriate behaviors/norms in society (not gender related).

Sex v. Gender

*Sex: genetics/biology

*Gender: society defines gender (i.e. masculine v feminine)

Gender Schemas, Roles, & Stereotypes

*Schema of “appropriate” behaviors, emotions, attitudes, occupations, etc. for each gender.

*Roles are a particular part of the schema that relates specifically to culturally defines “appropriate” behaviors for each gender.

*Stereotypes are a particular part of the schema that is related specifically to the culturally influences beliefs about each gender.

How are Gender Schemas Developed & Socialization Learned? (4 things)

1. Operant Conditioning

2. Observational Learning

3. Self-socialization

4. Family, schools, media

Puberty

Biological & physical changes that occur during adolescence in preparation for reproduction.

Primary v. Secondary sex Characteristics

Primary: necessary for reproduction.

Secondary: changes that are NOT necessary for reproduction.

Synaptic Pruning

Getting rid of inefficient/unnecessary synaptic connections.

Still developing prefrontal cortex = increases risk-taking

• Continues to develop until ~25 yrs old

(in charge of higher-level thought, decision-making, planning, etc.)

• Due to prefrontal cortex not being fully developed, risk-taking is increased

Marcia’s four identity statuses

Crisis (exploration; are you trying to figure it out?)

Commitment (have you made a decision?)

Identity Achievement~

• Successful achievement of a sense of identity.

Identity Foreclosure~

• Unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values.

Identity Moratorium~

• Active struggling for a sense of identity.

Identity Diffusion~

Absence of struggle for identity, w/ no obvious concern about it.

Forming an Identity: Social & Ethnic Identity

To what extent do the groups one belongs to influence one’s identity?

Racial Identity Theory

Development of a group or collective identity based on one's perception that one shares a common heritage with a particular racial group.

Emerging Adulthood

Transition between adolescence and adulthood

(some classify themselves as "adults," some don't see themselves as an adult yet).

“Early” Adulthood (~20-40+ yrs)

*physical & cognitive growth continues.

*social focus: Intimacy v. Isolation (Erikson); establishing self (career).

“Middle” Adulthood (~40-65+ yrs)

*social focus: Generativity v. Stagnation (Erkison)

*cognition is still good, overall

*slight physical deterioration

(decline in eyesight, hearing, soreness, etc.)

“Late” Adulthood (~65+ yrs)

*social focus: Integrity v. Despair (Erikson)

*cognition: slower processing, fluid intell. Starts to decline, etc.

*physical: continues deterioration of body & blood flow to the brain.

Dementia

Significant changes in cognitive processing

ex~ memory problems due to Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s

Longevity

Female tend to live longer.

Terminal Drop

Sharp decline in cognitive abilities (usually just before death).