Unit 2 AP Psych ALL VOCAB

Intelligence

Mental ability encompassing the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Reliability

Test consistently produces the same results under the same conditions, ensuring its trustworthiness and stability over time

Test-Retest Reliability

Consistency of a measure when it is administered to the same group of individuals at different points in time

Split-Half Reliability

Measures test’s internal consistency by dividing it into two halves (eg: odd and even questions), administering it once, and then correlating people’s performance

Validity

Degree to which test/measurement accurately assesses what it claims to measure

Construct Validity

Degree test accurately assesses specific, underlying theoretical concept it is designed to measure

Predictive Validity

Extent to which test can accurately forecast future performance or behavior based on its results

Aptitude Tests

Assess person’s potential to succeed in a certain area, even if they haven’t received any education/training in it

Ex: ACT/SAT

Achievement Tests

Evaluates individual’s knowledge or proficiency in certain areas they have been taught/trained in

Standardized Tests

Test given and scored under uniform conditions to compare results against social norms and ensure scores are reliable and valid for assessing knowledge

Fixed Mindset

Belief that one’s abilities, intelligence, and talents are static traits that can not be improved or developed

Growth Mindset

Belief that one’s ability and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and perseverance

Spearman’s Intelligence Theory (g factor)

Single, underlying cognitive ability (g) that influences performance across all mental tasks, If you do good on one intelligence test you will likely to good on the other

Gardner’s Intelligence Theory

Intelligence not a single general ability but multiple, distinct capabilities

1. Linguistic

2. Logical-Mathematical

3. Spatial

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic

5. Musical

6. Interpersonal

7. Intrapersonal

8. Naturalistic

Sternberg’s Intelligence Theory

Intelligence composed of three interrelated components

1. Analytical

2. Creative

3. Practical

Standford-Binet IQ Test

Classic, standardized intelligence test that measures cognitive abilities across five factors to produce an IQ score

Mental Age

Person’s level of mental development relative to others

Chronological Age

Actual amount of time person had been alive

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Score derived by standardized intelligence tests. (Mental age/Chronological Age) x 100

Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS ) and (WISC)

IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability to provide a comprehensive IQ score

Normal Distribution

_{Frequency distribution where most measurements are centered around the equal mean/median/mode and two sides of curve are symmetrical}

Percentile Rank

Percent of test takers you did better than. Compares your score in relation to others who took the test.

Heritability

Proportion of observed differences on a trait among individual of a population that are due to genetic differences. Higher heritability score means more due to genetic

Factor Analysis

Statistical technique used to identify underlying groups (factors) among many correlated test items or variables

Stereotype Threat

Fear one’s behavior will confirm an existing stereotype a group has. It actually may impair performance on tasks related to that stereotype.

Stereotype Lift

Performance improvement experienced by non-stereotyped group when compared to weaker group leading to increased self esteem

Sociocultural Responsiveness

Understanding and integrating a person’s cultural background, social context, and experiences into psychological services to make them more relevant

Flynn Effect

Observed, long term rise in IQ over generations likely because of better nutrition, education, and healthcare

Memory

Learning that has continued over time

Three-Box/Information Processing Model

Three Step Processing Model

1. Encoding

2. Storage

3. Retrieval

Levels of Processing Model

Suggests that depth of processing affects encoding and subsequent retrieval of information. Three main levels of processing: 

1. Structural Encoding 

2. Phonemic Encoding 

3. Semantic Encoding 

Sensory Memory

Process everything we sense. Info will leave brain in a few seconds if not encoded. Two types: 

1. Echoic Memory 

2. Iconic Memory

Selective Attention

Focus on one thing while ignoring the other competing things

Encoding

Way info is transformed and placed in the memory 

Automatic Processing

Info processing of much-related or well-learned activities that occurs without conscious effort. May require some attention when first performed but with practice becomes automatic

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort 

Deep Processing- Semantic

More long-lasting memory. Involved elaborate rehearsal, along with a meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned.

Intermediate (Phonemic) Processing

Focuses on sound of Information. Deeper than shallow processing but not as deep as semantic processing

Shallow Processing

Memorize something without attaching meaning to it. Less durable memory, tend to forget it quickly,

Structural Encoding

Encoding using basic visual qualities of word/concept. Shallowest level. Ex: Physical characteristics: appearance, shape, or sound 

Phonemic Encoding 

Processing the sound or pronunciation of stimulus. Deeper than structural but shallower than semantic. Ex: rhythm pattern, syllable structure to phonemic components. 

Semantic Encoding

Processing meaning of stimulus and its relationship to other concepts and info already stored in memory. Deepest form of encoding. 

Short-Term/Working Memory

Without active processing, memories have limited life-15-30 sec duration/ Can store ± 7 concepts. 

Central Executive

Main component of working memory, responsible for coordinating cognitive processes. Doesn’t store info but controls attention and coordinates activity with other subsystems. 

Phonological Loop

Auditory and verbal info. Two parts:

1. Phonological Store (Inner ear) 

   1. Holds auditory info from speech for two seconds 

2. Articulatory Control Process (inner voice)

   1. Rehearsal of verbal info- refreshes and maintain it in phonological store 

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Processes visual and spatial info. Ex: mental imagery, spatial reasoning, and navigation 

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar and manageable units. Increases amount of info stored in STM. 

Mnemonic Devices

Link new info to existing knowledge or experiences through association. Makes info more memorable. Ex: Acronyms or visual imagery.

Method of Loci

Associate items with imagery of places

Ex: counting windows in your house by visualizing house

Rehearsal

Conscious repetition of info to encode it into memory 

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info so not forgotten immediately, helps hold in short-term but doesn't process in long term 

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new concepts to old ones to help move them to long-term memory

Spacing Effect 

Information better retained and recalled when it is studied or rehearsed over multiple spaced intervals of time

Storage

Process of retaining encoded information over time

Iconic Memory

Fleeting visual images in sensory memory 

Echoic Memory

Auditory signals in sensory memory 

Long-Term Memory

Can store info indefinitely, but must be encoded. 

Episodic Memory 

Stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall (like episodes of a television show) and tell to someone else

Semantic Memory 

Impersonal memories not drawn from personal experiences but rather from common, everyday kinds of knowledge, such as names of color and names of states

Procedural Memory

Memories of how to do something, like ride a bike, bake cookies, create code for a computer 

Prospective Memory

Person recalls or remembers to do something in the future 

Explicit Memory

Past knowledge that is consciously brought to mind. Conscious, intentional recall of facts and personal experiences.

Implicit Memories

Memories retained without conscious effort and often without our awareness. Unconsciously retrieved. 

Retrieval

Recalling stored memories

Retrieval Clues 

Stimuli or hints that help you access stored info in your memory

Metacognition

The process of thinking about thinking. Helps identify which strategies are most effective in helping retrieve memories. 

Recognition

Memory retrieval where identify info as familiar, or previously encountered, from a set of options

Recall

Process of retrieving info without any cues or prompts

Primacy Effect

Tendency to remember first piece of info 

Recency Effect 

Remember info that came last more than earlier info

Serial Position Effect

Tend to remember info presented at beginning or end of a list better than that presented in middle 

Autobiographical Effect (memory)

Memory system that has info about ourselves including personal experiences, events, and facts from our lives. Includes episodic and semantic memories.

State-Dependent Effect

Memory retrieval most effect when in same state of consciousness as when memory formed 

Mood Congruent Effect

More likely to recall info when in a mood similar when it was acquired

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall of info while in same context or environment in which it was acquired 

Constructive Memory 

Process where memories are actively reconstructed, elaborated on or modified when recalling event. Illustrates how memories can be influenced by external factors and previously held ideas

Memory Consolidation

Newly formed memories are stabilized and integrated into LTM. Takes place when learn a new skill.

Imagination Inflation

Repeatedly imagining or elaborating on an event can lead to an increased confidence in the event’s occurrence, even if it actually never happened.  

Testing Effect

Retrieving info from memory enhances long-term retention of that info.

Ex: taking a test on the material lead to better retention than studying instead 

Relearning Effect

Previously learned material is learned more quickly second time around. Information was not previously forgotten but remained stored in memory  

Encoding Failure 

Inability to store or retrieve information in long-term memory due to failure in the initial encoding process

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

Can’t recall a specific word or term, but feel certain that you know it. It’s on the “tip of my tongue”

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts recall of previously learned info. New memory overshadows old one. 

Ex: Remembering new phone number makes you forget old one 

Proactive Interference

Older, previously learned info hinders recall of newer info

Ex: can’t remember new phone number, because have old one stored already 

Repression

Unconscious defense mechanism that blocks distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses from their conscious mind to protect themselves from emotional pain 

Misinformation Effect 

Person’s memory of an event is altered by misleading info received after event occurred Leads to false memories

Ex: Shown a pic of a man’s face then asked about a mustached man. Will recall man having mustache even if he had none

Framing

People’s decisions influenced by how info is presented rather than just the info itself 

Source Amnesia (misattribution)

Attributing an event, fact, or idea to the wrong source, while forgetting where you actually learned it 

Alzheimer’s Disease

Neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a significant and irreversible decline in cognitive and functional abilities leading to dementia

Infantile Amnesia

Inability of most adults to retrieve episodic memories from first few years of life, generally before age of 2-4

Anterograde Amnesia

Psychological condition where an individual is unable to form long-term memories after illness. Can recall memories before illness, but not after

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memory for events and info that occurred before specific event. Often caused by brain trauma after injury or disease

Long-Term Potentiation 

Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent activity. Allows synapse to become more effective at transmitting signals. Ex: repeatedly practicing to learn how to ride a bike

Rosy Retrospection

People recall past events more positively than they actually experienced them

Forgetting Curve

Model that shows how we lose retention of new info overtime without reinforcement 

Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

Thinking about how you think

Concepts

Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experiences

Prototypes

Mental image or best example of category/concept

Schemas

Generalizations and mental representations about persons, places and things which provide automatic thought patterns and opinions