6 - SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS

What is Strain Theory?

It is based on the idea that individuals typically comply with social norms, and any deviation occurs because they are experiencing some form of strain or external pressure.

What is control theory?

It is assumed that infraction is actually

normal and naturally occurs when there is an absence of social control.

What is neutralisation theory?

• argues that although most people accept society’s norms and values, some individuals learn techniques that allow them to justify their wrongdoing

• which weakens the norms’ influence on their behaviour.

• the theory focuses on how a person’s family environment and role-learning shape these justifications.

Who is Emile Durkeheim?

• Along with Marx and Weber he is regarded as one of the three father figures of modern sociology.

• First professor of sociology anywhere in the world.

What three things in Criminology is Durkheim famous for?

1. the notion that crime is normal;

2. the legacy of anomie theory;

3. the argument that in conditions of advanced division of labour the basis of moral obligation and social solidarity will become increasingly problematic.

Why did Durkheim describe crime as “normal”?.

• Because crime exists in all societies and serves the functional purpose of marking boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

• It reinforces collective values and promotes social cohesion. 

What is Durkheim’s concept of anomie?

• A state of normlessness or breakdown of social regulation, occurring when societal norms fail to regulate individuals’ desires.

• It can arise from under-regulation (too much freedom) or over-regulation (too much constraint).

What is the fundamental difference between physical and social needs according to Durkheim?

Physical needs have natural limits and can be fulfilled naturally, while social needs (like wealth, power, and prestige) have no natural limits and are regulated externally by society.

What did the Anomie theory lead to? 

• Robert Merton’s 1938 essay, usually referred to as the most famous essay in the history of sociology. 

• work on subcultural theory, gang studies and theories that highlighted a different set of lower-class values to the mainstream middle class.

What happens when social needs are not regulated according to Durkheim? 

Freed from regulation, social desires become limitless, causing meaninglessness and anomie.

Can over-regulation also cause anomie?

Yes, excessive social regulation can also lead to anomie.

What balance does Durkheim emphasise in social life?

Social life requires a balance between under-regulation and over-regulation, integration and isolation, and socially provided identity and individuality.

What dual nature does anomie have for Durkheim?

Under-regulation: desires become limitless → instability.

Over-regulation: excessive constraint → frustration and meaninglessness.

How does Durkheim link the division of labour to social solidarity?

Advanced division of labour weakens traditional solidarity and makes the foundation of moral obligation more problematic.

How does Walter Miller describe lower-class culture?

As a distinct, centuries-old tradition with its own structure.

Which writers are associated with sub-cultural theory in criminology?

Albert Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin, and Walter Miller.

How does Walter Miller describe lower-class culture?

As a distinct, centuries-old tradition with its own structure.

What are Miller’s six “focal concerns” of lower-class culture?

1. Trouble – preoccupation with fighting, drinking, sexual conquests
2. Toughness – macho image, fearlessness, physical skill
3. Smartness – ability to outsmart others
4. Excitement – seeking thrills due to fluctuating work cycles
5. Fate – fatalistic outlook, accepting violence/prison
6. Autonomy – ambivalent desire for independence

What does socialisation theory focus on in relation to delinquency?

Whether faulty upbringing or inadequate supervision contributes to delinquency.

How do broken homes relate to delinquency?

Forced separation from a parent or one-parent families may influence delinquency, depending on social context.

According to Gottfredson & Hirschi, what family factors influence a child’s self-control?

Parental attachment, supervision, recognition of deviance, punishment of deviance, and parental involvement in crime.

Why is the development of self-control important in socialisation theory?

It has a lasting effect on the likelihood of delinquency.

What other factors, besides family, affect a young person’s risk of delinquency?

Social, economic, and personal capital.

What is Matza’s critique of determinist criminology?

It predicts too much delinquency and assumes offenders are committed to deviant values; instead, most delinquency is intermittent, petty, and often temporary.

How did Matza propose criminology should approach crime?

By starting with the notion of crime as an infraction and considering its empirical features, rather than assuming permanent or pervasive deviance.

What is the difference between ‘correction’ and ‘appreciation’ in Matza’s work?

Correction aims to eliminate deviance; appreciation seeks to understand deviance from the subject’s perspective.

What does an appreciative perspective demand from the analyst?

To render the phenomenon faithfully, understand the subject’s view, and interpret the world as it appears to them without necessarily agreeing.