psychology vocab

aim

The researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour).

alternative hypothesis

opposite of null hypothesis; suggests a relationship between variables

archival research

analyzes studies that were conducted by other researchers; analyzes case studies

bar chart

A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.

behavioral categories

Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record

case study

In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).

closed questions

Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data

co-variables

The variables investigated in a correlation

concurrent validity

Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity

confidentiality

Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.

confounding variable

An extraneous variable that affects the results (DV), apart from the IV; works systematically with IV

content analysis

Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data.

control group

A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally).

controlled observation

An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting

correlational analysis

A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related

counterbalancing

A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A

covert observation

Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed

critical value

The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted.

complex hypothesis

suggests a relationship between 3+ variables (ex: 2 IV and 1 DV)

correlation

relationship between 2 variables; males predictions and describes the relationship

debriefing

After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.

deception

involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study

demand characteristics

the clues in an experiment lead the participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for (e.g. the experimenters body language)

dependent variable

the result or the outcome of IV manipulation; measured

descriptive statistics

Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way

directional hypothesis

one tailed hypothesis; specifies direction of outcome (DV)

dispersion measure

A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation

double blind control

Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.

ecological validity

the degree to which an investigation represents real-life experiences

ethical guidelines

These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.

ethical issues

There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research – deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants.

evaluation effects

Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observersevent sampling

event sampling

A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs

experimental group

The group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)

external validity

Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting.

extraneous variable

all variables which are not IV’s but could affect the results (DV) of an experiment. EV’s should be controlled where possible.

face validity

simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value (i.e. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence?)

field experiment

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

histogram

A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous.

hypothesis

This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable.

independent groups design

An experimental design where each participants only takes part in one condition of the IV

independent variable

The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).

inferential statistics

Inferential statistics are ways of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results.

informed consent

Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part

inter-observer reliability

The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way

internal validity

In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics.

interval level data

Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale

investigator effects

These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation.

laboratory experiment

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV

matched pairs design

An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV

mean

Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores

measures of central tendency

A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode

median

Measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score

meta-analysis

A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted

mode

Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

natural experiment

An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter

naturalistic observation

An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur

negative correlation

A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, the other decreases

nominal level data

Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t).

non-directional hypothesis

two tailed hypothesis; direction of outcome (DV) is not specified

normal distribution

An arrangement of a data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre at the highest peak

observed value

The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test

observer bias

Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations

open questions

Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data.

operationalizing variables

This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).

opportunity sample

A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available

order effects

can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task

ordinal level data

Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness).

overt observation

Also known as a disclosed observation as the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed

participant observation

Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing.

peer review

Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems

pilot study

A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made.

positive correlation

A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, so does the other

presumptive consent

Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would

primary data

Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation

prior general consent

Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose

probability

How likely something is to happen – can be expressed as a number (0.5) or a percentage (50% change of tossing coin and getting a head)

protection of participants

Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life

qualitative data

Descriptive information that is expressed in words; i.e. color

quantitative data

Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.

quasi experiment

An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions

questonnaire

A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves

random sampling

A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected

randomization

Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin' to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation

range

The distance between the lowest and the highest value in a set of scores.

reliability

Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable

repeated measures design

An experimental design where each participants takes part in both/all conditions of the IV

representative sample

A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics

retrospective consent

Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.

right to withdraw

Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part.

sample

A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation

scattergram

Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them

secondary data

Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics

semi-structured interview

Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant

sign test

A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions

significance

If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance

single blind control

Participants are not told the true purpose of the research

skewed distributions

An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered ro one end of the distribution

social desirability bias

Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.

standard deviation

A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are. .