AP Psyc unit 1 (updated for 2025)

LTP

Long term potentiation- the ability of our neurons to activate when we recall info that we have already learned.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself.

Heritability

the amount of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genetics.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral NS

Brings info to central Nervous system

Somatic NS

The part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary muscle movements and conveying sensory information to the central nervous system.

Autonomic NS

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.

Sympathetic NS

A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. Dialates pupils, decreases digestion

Parasympathetic NS

Calms your body down after a fight or flight response. Does the opposite of sympathetic NS.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, enabling movement. Motor neurons recieve efferent signals from the brain

Sensory Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit sensory information from the body to the central nervous system, allowing perception of stimuli such as touch, pain, and temperature.

Glial Cells

Support and protect neurons, playing a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis in the nervous system. They also communicate, along with sending and receiving signals from the brain.

Cell Firing Pattern

Dentrite, soma, axon, terminal button, synapse

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released, allowing communication between nerve cells. They are at the end of each terminal button

Myelin Sheath

A protective layer that surrounds the axon of a neuron, facilitating faster transmission of electrical signals.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential, promoting the transmission of signals between neurons.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential, inhibiting the transmission of signals between neurons.

Glutamate

The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter. enhances learning and memory by strengthing synaptic connections.

GABA

Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, it plays a crucial role in reducing neuronal excitability and promoting relaxation. Associated with various anxiety disorders, and is the breaks of the CNS

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are involved in pleasure and reward.

Seratonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. It is often linked to feelings of well-being and happiness. Low levels are linked to depression

Action Potential

An electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

Reuptake

The sending neurons recollects neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons, playing a crucial role in communication within the brain and throughout the nervous system. Different from hormones.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Found in CNS and PNS. Involved in memory, learning, and movement. All movements involve Ach. Diminished Ach is associated with alzheimers.

Dopamine

Linked to the anticipation of pleasureable experiences. Also involved in movement, attention, and learning. Not enough = Parkinsons, too much= Schizophrenia

Ephinephrine (Adrenaline)

Neurotransmitter and hormone. Boosts energy. Primary chemical in the fight or flight response.

Norephinephrine

Arousal, alertness, vigilance. Highened sensitivity to surroundings. Heavily involved in sleep cycle.

Agonists

Drugs or toxins that lock into brain receptors and likely makes that neuron fire. They enhance actions of neurotransmitters

Antagonist

Drugs that block or inhibit some of the neuronal communication taking place. They often bind to receptors but do not inhibit it

Blood brain barrier

A barrier that allows some chemicals to pass from the blood into the brain but prevent other chemical structures from entering

Herion

Against for endorphins

Nicotine

Agonist for Ach- stimulate muscles and causes an increase in heart rate

Prozac

Reuptake inhibitor- inhibits the reuptake of serotonin which causes serotonin to flood the synapse

Cocaine

Inhibits the reuptake of dopamine- Agonist

Botox

Antagonist for Ach. Blocks it from reaching receptors and affected muscles can’t move

Depressants

Depress CNS

Opioids

Agonist for endorphins. Very Addictive. Herion, fentanyl

Stimulants

Psychoactive drug. Activate sympathetic nervous system. Increase brain activity

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drug. Sensory and perceptive distortions

Medulla

Part of the hindbrain. Basic autonomic functions. Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure. Reflexes include swallowing, sneezing, and vomiting

Pons

Connects the brain stem and cerebellum. Helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body. Also plays a role in sleep function

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A network in nerve fibers involved in attention, arousal, and alertness.

Cerebellum

Helps with balance and equilibrium, coordinated movement sequences, and implicit memory

Midbrain

Nerve system connecting higher and lower portions of the brain.

Limbic system

Consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

Thalamus

The sensory switchboard. It receives and sorts sensory info then sends it to the cortex for further interpretation. Smell is the only exception.

Hypothalamus

Fight or flight response. Regulates sympathetic and parasympathetic NS. Initiates motivation to eat and lets you know when you’re full. Also contributes to sexual motivation.

Amygdala

Anger, aggression. Involved in fear response and memory, but usually only emotional ones.

Hippocampus

Converts short term memory to long term. Involved in processing and retrieving declarative (facts and events) memory.

Frontal lobe

Prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, Broca’s area

Broca’s area

involved in expressive speech

Motor cortex

involved in initiating involuntary movement. Contralateral (left hemisphere controls right side of the body). Body areas that make diverse and precise movements get more tissue on this strip of the brain.

Prefrontal cortex

Involved in the highest level cognitive functions. Thinking, planning, decision making, and impulse control.

Parietal lobe

Somatosensory cortex. Located near to back and top of the head.

Somatosensory cortex

Strip of tissue that represents your sense of touch. Contralateral.

Temporal lobe

Primary auditory cortex, audio association cortex, werenicke’s area. Located behind the ear.

Primary auditory cortex

main place for audio perception ot occur

Audio association cortex

figures out and names what you are hearing

Werenickes area

Involved in understanding/ comprehending language.

Occipital lobe

Primary visual cortex. Located at the back of the head (Eyes in the back of your head).

Primary visual cortex

main area for vision processing and perception.

Double blind procedure

where neither the proctor or the participants know if they were given the actual drug.

Case Study

Examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of reeling things true to us all.

Ex- brain damage, animal intelligence

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording natural behavior and naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Experiment

An investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Corpus callosum

A massive bundle of nerves, connecting the two hemispheres and allows communication between the two

EEG

Brain scan technology that measures the electrical activity coming off the brain (wires on head). Can be used to find epilepsy or sleep disorders

fMRI

Shows structure and brain function of brain. Measures changes in oxygen labels as brain areas activate or deactivate.

CT scan

medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body, allowing for visualization of internal structures like the brain, providing information about the physical structure of the brain rather than its activity levels

REM sleep

Sleep stage consisting of rapid eye movement. It increases in length as night of sleep, progresses. Vivid dreaming, paralyzed body, and is an essential part of sleep for the mind.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement stages of sleep. Decreases length as night of sleep, progresses. Vague, partial images and stories. Night terrors, sleepwalking, and sleep talking in NREM 3. Essential part of sleep for the body

Restoration theory of sleep

Our bodies wear out during the day and we use up hormones, neurotransmitters, and energy. Sleep is necessary to restore these resources, and energize the body. Sleep helps restore and repair muscle and brain tissue. Sleep supports growth.

Memory consolidation theory of sleep

Sleep helps, restore and rebuild our memories of the days experiences. Memory consolidation occurs during REM. Sleep deprived, individuals struggle, both physically and cognitively.

Energy conservation theory of sleep

Based on evolutionary approach. Sleep protects us. As animals involved, sleep emerged to preserve energy and protect us during the part of the day when movement and activity are less likely to yield value and I’m more likely to expose it to danger.

Sigmund Freud

Proposed that dreams are the road to the unconscious mind, filled of content that we cannot face in conscious waking life.

Sclera

White part of your eye

Cornea

Front of the eye. Protects.

Lens

(Eyes) Clear, flexible. Bends, depending on what you were looking at.

Iris

Color part of the eye

Rods

Handles black-and-white vision, along with peripheral vision.

Trichromatic

Proposed by Herman Von Helmholtz. Focuses on the eyes. Sensation, objectively, observed and measured. Three types of cones in the retina that each perceive a different hue.

Opponent processing (eyes)

Proposed by Ewald Herring. Focuses on the brain. Perception, no one can independently measure what another person perceives. Does my brain process certain frequencies the same way as other people‘s brains.

Outer Ear

Has the Pinna

Pinna

Thing you put the back of your sunglasses on. It acts like a satellite dish or concert shell to help focus the signal into the ear.

Middle Ear

Has the ear drum

Ear drum

Tympanic membrane. Basically, a drum, air vibrations are carried to it from the air canal. Consists of three bones. The hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup.

Inner ear

Has the cochlea

Cochlea

About the size of a pea. Snail shaped and filled with fluid.

Place theory

The size of the wave depends on how hard stirrup hits the oval window. Where a wave crashes, on the organ of quartile is one way the brain perceives pitch.

Frequency theory

Frequency of signals tells the brain which pitch to interpret

Papilla

your taste buds are on it. Each one has hundreds of taste buds. Each taste has receptors that look for tastant molecules.

Taste receptors

Salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami

Embodied cognition

The broad idea that the body isn’t just a dumb collector of information. The body works with the brain to help process and digest the amount of data that is happening in your nervous system every second.

Feedback loop

Your body gives your brain info and then your brain tells your body and it adjusts according to the info from the brain

Kinesthetic awareness

Awareness of how your body moves

Independent variable

The thing that you change in an experiment

Dependent variable

The thing that you measure in an experiment