A Level Edexcel Superpowers Enquiry Question 3

[7.7A] Why may superpowers and emerging powers need to acquire resources of physical resources from other countries?

Countries may not have the resources or enough resources domestically, therefore they must seek to import them. There are downsides to this as:

- Countries may be forced to buy resources at high prices, e.g. in 2008 crude oil was priced at $140 per barrel.

- Trading with unfriendly regimes, or ones that are politically unstable (e.g. Iranian and Iraqi oil)

- During conflict trade routes may be blocked, and therefore supply, is blocked.

- Creates a large interdependence.

[7.7A] How can there be tensions when it comes to acquiring natural resources?

- There may be disputes over ownership of land, such as Argentina's claim to the UK.

- The extent to of a nation's offshore exclusive economic zone is disputed, or claimed by another nation.

- The land border between countries can be disputed

- There may be disagreement over exploiting an area's resources for environmental reasons, such as the Artic where there are high risks of environmental disaster from oil spills is high in one the ecosystems on the planet also with a large indigenous population

[7.7A] Why are there tensions over the Artic oil and gas?

It is estimated that 30% of the world's undiscovered gas and 13% of oil resources are in the Artic.

- This is worth billions of dollars.

- Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, countries can exploit resources in an area up to 200 nautical miles beyond their coastline.

- Norway, Iceland, Denmark, Russia and the USA all have competing claims.

- Many countries are using their continental shelf as a reason for their exclusive economic zone to be extended, therefore they have greater access.

- Norway and Iceland's continental shelf claims have been approved by the UN. Russia disputes this.

- Some claims on continental shelf are overlapping.

- Military patrols and activity has increased in Artic. In fact, Canada conducts annual military exercises and Russia has the most military bases.

- Russia is investing in the Svalbard island for tourism, with museums reflecting Russian presence in the artic. The projection of culture and influence is soft power.

- The Svalbard island actually belongs to Norway, so the fact Russia is investing is to show its influence.

- All seeking for energy security and economic development.

[7.7A] Why is the artic contested geography important?

- Climate change will make resources more accessible, so more countries will wish to extract resources, potentially furthering tensions.

- The artic becomes a shipping rouse as the artic melts, making it easier for the US to trade. It will cut travel time.

[7.7C] What is a sphere of influence?

A region over which a country believes it has economic, military, cultural or political rights.

[7.7C] Why are spheres of influences being contested?

- Territory is being contested, such as disputed borders.

- Resources are disputed, particularly when discovered or suspected.

[7.7C] How is the South China Sea contested?

There are competing claims over territory in the South China Sea between several countries, China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Brunei.

- All of these countries have varying claims of which islands are owned by who, including the Parcel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and the Spratly Islands.

- There are large reserves of fossil fuels around the Spratly Islands, but also 90% of global trade passes through this region worth approximately $5 trillion, therefore it's a key region.

[7.7C] What are the different claims of the South China Sea?

Paracels:

- China.

- Taiwan.

- Vietnam.

Spratly:

- China.

- Philippines.

- Malaysia.

- Brunei.

- Taiwan.

- Vietnam.

Scarborough:

- China.

- Taiwan.

- Philippines.

- China's claim is often defined by the nine-dash line which stretches hundreds of miles south, and uses its heritage and continental shelf expansion data.

- Vietnam claims it has ruled over these islands since the 17th Century.

- Philippines argues its close geographical proximity as a reason to claim the islands.

- Malaysia and Brunei claims the Spratly islands due to it falling in their EEZ as defined by UNCLOS.

- Taiwan claims Paracels, Spratly, and Scarborough.

[7.7C] What actions have been taken over the South China dispute?

There have been flashpoints, particularly between Vietnam and China, and the Philippines and China.

Conflict:

- In the 1974, the Chinese seized the Paracels from Vietnam.

- In 2014, the introduction by China of a drilling rig into waters near the parcel islands led to multiple collisions between the Vietnamese and Chinese ships.

Actions:

- China has set up a military base on the Spratly islands.

- Philippines pays some of its citizens to live on the islands.

- China has created artificial islands, and used the land for airports, ports and military bases.

- Largest naval presence in the sea is the US due to its close associations with other countries like the Philippines.

[7.7C] How is the East China Sea disputed?

China and Japan are in dispute over the Senakus.

- There are oil and gas reserves under the seabed in this region, as well as rich fishing grounds.

- Japanese and Chinese fishing boats have clashed in this area.

- China sees Japan as economic competitors.

[7.7C] How has contested geography in Russia and Ukraine led to conflict? (Prior to 2022 invasion.)

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many countries are left with Russian as a language widely spoken, and Russia believes these to be part of its sphere of influence, particularly Baltics.

- Many of these countries have raised the possibility of joining the EU and/or NATO.

- This has led to a number of conflicts where Russia acted in spite of their intentions to join the IGOs.

- Russia has annexed Ukraine in 2014, taking Crimea as a result of the overthrow of the pro-russian President and intentions to join EU/nato.

- In 2008, Russia annexed Georgian regions after a short war and as of 2016, continues to occupy.

[7.7C] How has contested geographies left to implications for people and the physical environment? (2022)

People:

- UN predicts that around 14,000 people have been killed in the conflict, with more than 3000 being civilians.

- The annexation of Georgian regions left over 10000 people displaced.

Physical Environment:

- Cities within Ukraine like Kharkiv have destroyed lots of infrastructure with mass shelling.

- Ukrainians bombing their own infrastructure to make it more difficult for Russian advance.

- As a result of China's artificial land, it poured sand onto coral reefs which has killed then.

- Ships have been destroyed have released toxic materials into the material, such as oil.

[7.7C] Why is the South China Sea important?

- Bad geopolitical relationship with China.

- Globally could increase China's superpower status.

- Challenging international law - what else could it challenge?

[7.8C] Why are there cultural tensions within the Middle East?

- For religious reasons, where the Sunni and Shia (this is branches of islam) countries are fighting against each other in proxy wars.

- The ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel; Israel has taken land from Palestinians and built settlements which has continued to cause tensions with Muslims around the world.

[7.8C] Why are there political tensions within the Middle East?

- Since 2015 a civil war has raged in Yemen, which has involved Saudi Arabia directly and the USA indirectly.

- Most Muslim countries are hostile to the Jewish state of Israel: Iran has vowed to destroy it, but the USA is a key ally of Israel.

- An alliance between the West with Israel and Arab monarchies whilst an opposing alliance has been formed between Iran, Syria, Russia and China.

- The Israelis are provided with billions in aid and equipment from the USA and Europe whilst Russia backs the Iranian and Syrian regimes.

- Relatively new states, and democracy is relatively weak or non-existent.

[7.8C] Why are there environmental tensions within the Middle East?

- Although rich in fossil fuels, the region is short of water and farmland, meaning territorial conflict over resources is likely.

- Syria and Iraq are having conflict now over the Tigris- Euphrates river.

[7.8C] Why are there economic tensions within the Middle East?

- 65% of the world's crude oil exports originate in the region. The oil and gas reserves have been a prize worth fighting for.

- US has imposed economic sanctions on Iran.

- Middle Eastern countries can influence the price of oil and gas for developed economies.

[7.8C] Why are there tensions due to the history of the Middle East?

- Many international borders were decided by colonial powers and do not reflect the cultural groups.

- 24 million Kurdish people are split over four states, and are now demanding their own state.

[7.8C] How are the tensions within the Middle East a challenge to superpowers and emerging powers?

- Contrasting cultural ideologies makes it difficult geopolitical relationships.

- The heavy cost of money and soldier's lives turned US opinion against military intervention in the Middle East following the invasion of Iraq.

- This weakens the USA's political power, but strengthens Syria's.

- Conflict reduces superpower's ability to spread soft power.

- Sanctions against Iran have restricted Chinese access to Iranian oil.