PQ 3a

James K. Polk

1845-1849 Democrat

Mexican American War

James K. Polk

1846-1848

As a result of the Texas annexation, the Mexican-American War was over the acquisition of California and the Mexico-Texas border motivated by Polk’s drive for Manifest Destiny. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, establishing the Rio Grande to the Nueces River as the U.S.-Mexican border; Mexico also recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas, and agreed to sell California and the rest of its territory north of the Rio Grande for $15 million plus the assumption of certain damage claims. This was Mexican Cession. This raised concern about slave states and the balance which led to the Wilmot Proviso and the Compromise of 1850 which. The acquisition of California also led to the Gold Rush.

Wilmot Proviso

James K. Polk

1846

As a result of the Mexican Cession, in 1846, Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposed that an appropriations bill be amended to forbid slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This prohibition appealed to many voters and lawmakers who wanted to preserve the land for white settlers and protect them from having to compete with enslaved labor. Both times, it was defeated in the Senate, where Southern congressmen reacted with strong opposition, denouncing it as an infringement on their rights and viewing it as a threat to the institution of slavery, often calling it "treason to the Constitution." This also led to the Compromise of 1850 in trying to settle the divide on the topic of slavery and the balance in the states.

Reaction of southern congressman effect

Wisconsin and Iowa admitted as free states

James K. Polk

As a result of the acquisition of Texas, Wisconsin and Iowa were admitted as free states. Their admission as free states was part of a broader sectional conflict between slave and free states, particularly highlighted by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. This shift contributed to the increasing polarization of the nation leading up to the Civil War with the tip of the balance through adding more free states. This addition of free states was majorly leading up to the new Missouri Compromise of 1850 which attempted to solve this issue.

Free Soil Party organized

James K. Polk

1848

The Free-Soil Party opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. In 1846 David Wilmot introduced to Congress the Wilmot Proviso. The Wilmot concept was a direct ideological antecedent to the Free-Soil Party. The Free-Soil Party nominated the former U.S. president Martin Van Buren to head its ticket. The party weakened the regular Democratic candidate in New York and contributed to the election of the Whig candidate Zachary Taylor. The party was well represented in several state legislatures and the House of Representatives. In 1854 the disorganized remnants of the party were absorbed into the newly formed Republican Party, which carried the Free-Soil idea of opposing the expansion of slavery one step further by condemning slavery as a moral evil as well. This new party would put Lincoln into office.

Discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in California

James K. Polk

1848

James Wilson Marshall found flakes of gold in the American River at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains near Coloma, California. At the time, Marshall was working to build a water-powered sawmill owned by John Sutter. Days after Marshall’s discovery at Sutter’s Mill, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ending the Mexican-American War and leaving California in the hands of the United States with the Mexican Cession. At the time, the population of the territory consisted of mostly Californios and Natives, but that soon changed. Sutter had enslaved hundreds of Native Americans and used them as a free source of labor and makeshift militia to defend his territory and expand his empire. This resulted in the Gold Rush which led to the further murder, enslavement, and assimilation of indigenous peoples.

Seneca Falls Convention

James K. Polk

1848

The meeting launched the women’s suffrage movement, which more than seven decades later ensured women the right to vote with the 19th Amendment. The Seneca Falls Convention fought for the social, civil, and religious rights of women. The convention proceeded to discuss the 11 resolutions on women’s rights which was known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments. All passed unanimously except for the ninth resolution, which demanded the right to vote for women. Stanton and African American abolitionist Frederick Douglass gave impassioned speeches in its defense before it eventually passed. It resulted in the Women’s Rights Movement.

Zachary Taylor

1849-1850 Whig

Gold Rush

Zachary Taylor

1849

The California Gold Rush was sparked by the discovery of gold nuggets in Sutter’s Mill. Thousands of prospective gold miners traveled by sea or over land to San Francisco and the surrounding area; soon the White population increased dramatically while the ethnic population decreased due to murder, enslavement, and forced removal. It also had to do with the broader idea of manifest destiny and had a large part in the development of railroads with the San Diego-Texas railroad which people wanted to build as a southern transcontinental railroad. Majorly it led to the mass migration of Whites and removal of others.

Henry David Thoreau Civil Disobedience

Zachary Taylor

Henry David Thoreau argues that individuals have a moral obligation to disobey unjust laws and refuse to cooperate with a government that engages in immoral activities even if it means facing legal consequences, prioritizing one's conscience over the state's authority; he uses his own experience of being jailed for refusing to pay taxes as a protest against the Mexican-American War. His essay are deeply rooted in the Transcendentalist philosophy, which emphasizes individual intuition and the inherent goodness of humans. "Civil Disobedience" significantly inspired leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. who employed nonviolent civil disobedience tactics in their struggles for social change.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Zachary Taylor

1850

Clayton–Bulwer Treaty was designed to harmonize contending British and U.S. interests in Central America. Because of its equivocal language, it became one of the most discussed and difficult treaties in the history of Anglo-U.S. relations. It resulted from negotiations between Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British minister to Washington, and John M. Clayton, U.S. secretary of state. The treaty established joint control of a future canal across the Isthmus of Panama and pledged a neutral Central America. Disputes arose over Britain's interests and the interpretation of neutrality. As the canal remained unbuilt, U.S. pressure grew to abandon the treaty. This led to the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty in 1901, allowing the U.S. to construct and control the canal independently.

Nashville Convention

Zachary Taylor

1850

Nashville Convention was the two-session meeting of proslavery Southerners in the United States. Delegates from nine Southern states met in Nashville to form against the north. The convention ultimately adopted 28 resolutions defending slavery and the right of all Americans to migrate to the Western territories. In September the U.S. Congress enacted the Compromise of 1850, so the Nashville Convention reconvened for a second session. Although they rejected the Compromise of 1850 and called upon the South to secede, most Southerners were relieved to have the sectional strife seemingly resolved, and the second session of the Nashville Convention had little impact. Taylor threatened to hang them if they pursued secession which kept the US together but raised sectional tensions. This also led to the South Carolina secession.

Millard Fillmore

1850-1853 Whig

Compromise of 1850 (Ominous Bill)

Millard Fillmore

1850

The compromise aimed to balance interests by strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act, admitting California as a free state, resolving a boundary dispute in favor of New Mexico, and abolishing the slave trade in Washington, D.C. It also allowed residents of New Mexico and Utah to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty. While it temporarily preserved national unity with this solution to westward expansion, southern fears about slavery's future led to secession threats, though a Nashville Convention attracted little support, indicating most southerners still favored the Union, provided Congress protected slavery and supported pro slavery statehood. This also provided a major solution to the problem of westward expansion due to slavery.

California enters Union as free state

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

California's admission as a free state in 1850 followed the Gold Rush. California's rapid population growth prompted its request for statehood. The debate over whether California would enter the Union as a free or slave state heightened tensions between North and South. To maintain a delicate balance between free and slave states, the Compromise of 1850 allowed California to enter as a free state, while simultaneously enacting a stronger Fugitive Slave Act to appease southern interests. This decision angered many southerners and contributed to the ongoing sectional conflict, as it disrupted the balance of power in Congress and intensified the national debate over slavery.

New Mexico and Utah territories organized based on popular sovereignty

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The organization of the New Mexico and Utah territories under popular sovereignty allowed the residents of these territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery, rather than having Congress dictate the terms. This was intended to appease both pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions, reflecting the growing tension over the expansion of slavery in the West. While popular sovereignty aimed to reduce conflict, it ultimately intensified debates over slavery, leading to violent confrontations such as "Bleeding Kansas" and the Gadsden Purchase which allowed the New Mexico territory to be a confederate state and the addition of southern transcontinental railroad.

No Slave Trade in Washington D.C.

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C., was a measure reflecting a growing sentiment in the North against the practice of buying and selling enslaved people, even while slavery itself remained legal in the capital. By ending the slave trade, Congress aimed to reduce the visibility of slavery in the nation's capital and respond to anti-slavery pressures. However, this compromise did not eliminate slavery in D.C., which continued to exist, illustrating the complexities and contradictions of the era's efforts to address the issue of slavery while maintaining national unity. The decision further fueled sectional tensions as it was seen as a concession to Northern interests which deeply angered the south.

New Mexico/Texas border dispute in favor of New Mexico

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The New Mexico-Texas border dispute was a contentious issue resolved by the Compromise of 1850, which favored New Mexico. After the Mexican-American War, Texas claimed a significant portion of what is now New Mexico based on its original boundaries. However, the federal government sought to establish a clear boundary to maintain peace and stability. The compromise officially defined the border in favor of New Mexico, which helped to quell tensions between the two regions. In exchange for recognizing this boundary, Texas received financial compensation, and the resolution aimed to balance the interests of both southern and western states, reflecting the ongoing struggle over territory and the expansion of slavery in the West. This led to the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 which finalized the southwestern border and made New Mexico confederate territory which went to the debate over slavery.

Texas given $10 million to compensate for border dispute with New Mexico

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

Texas was awarded $10 million to resolve the border dispute with New Mexico. This compensation was necessary because Texas claimed territory extending far into what is now New Mexico, creating significant tensions. By defining the border in favor of New Mexico, the federal government aimed to stabilize relations and assert federal authority. The financial settlement helped alleviate Texas's debts and facilitated its acceptance of the new boundary, which was a crucial step in maintaining peace between the two regions and addressing the broader conflicts surrounding slavery and territorial expansion in the antebellum United States. This arrangement exemplified the compromises made during this period to preserve national unity.

Strict Fugitive Slave Law

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The strict Fugitive Slave Law, mandated that escaped enslaved people be returned to their owners, even if they were found in free states, denying them the right to a jury trial. This law heightened federal enforcement measures, requiring citizens to assist in the capture of fugitives and imposing severe penalties on those who helped them escape. The law was intended to appease southern states and strengthen their claims to enslaved people, but it sparked outrage in the North, which resulted in the Personal Liberty Laws which allowed the north the right to not participate. This led to increased abolitionist sentiment and resistance, exemplified by activities such as the Underground Railroad. This strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law further deepened the sectional divide, laying the groundwork for the conflicts that would erupt in the Civil War.

Herman Melville Moby Dick

Millard Fillmore

The novel reflects the spirit of Manifest Destiny through Captain Ahab’s obsessive quest to conquer the elusive white whale. Additionally, the whaling industry, central to the story, was a significant part of the U.S. economy in the mid-1800s, particularly in New England. Melville’s critique of obsessive individualism, fate, and the consequences of unchecked ambition also mirrors the growing tensions in America during this period, making the novel an important lens through which to examine the cultural and philosophical undercurrents of the era. His novel offered a metaphor for the slavery question as to the fate of the union with the Captain’s obsessiveness.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Millard Fillmore

1852

Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin is a powerful anti-slavery novel that vividly portrays the brutal realities of slavery in the pre-Civil War South. The story follows the life of Uncle Tom, a dignified and devout Black slave, who is sold away from his family and faces cruelty under different masters. Through Tom’s story, Stowe highlights the inhumanity of slavery and the moral corruption it breeds, galvanizing Northern abolitionist sentiment and inflaming tensions between the North and South. The novel played a significant role in shaping public opinion, contributing to the growing abolitionist movement and intensifying the sectional divide that eventually led to the Civil War.

Cumberland Road completed

Millard Fillmore

1852

Cumberland Road was the first federally funded highway, stretching from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois. The road facilitated westward expansion by providing a reliable route for settlers, goods, and mail to travel from the eastern states to the Midwest. It helped integrate the national economy, promote trade, and encourage migration, contributing to the rise of American frontier settlements. The road was a key development in the larger context of the Transportation Revolution, which included canals, railroads, and improved roads. A notable one was the San Diego Railroad which would help establish a transcontinental rail route, this initiative was known as the inspire railroad, and promote trade and economic development in California.

Franklin Pierce

1853-1857 Democrat

Gadsden Purchase

Franklin Pierce

1853

The Gadsden Purchase was a treaty in which the United States acquired a small region of land from Mexico for $10 million, comprising parts of present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico. The purchase was negotiated by James Gadsden and was intended to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad route from Texas to San Diego. While the acquisition was relatively small in size, it had significant implications for the U.S. expansionist agenda, fulfilling the nation's desire for territorial consolidation following the Mexican-American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). The purchase also exacerbated tensions over slavery, as the new land became confederate territory which further amplified tensions between the north and south.

Ostend Manifesto

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Ostend Manifesto was a secret diplomatic document drafted by U.S. envoys in Europe, advocating for the acquisition of Cuba from Spain, by purchase or force, as part of an effort to expand American territory and spread slavery into new regions. The manifesto argued that if Spain refused to sell Cuba, the U.S. had the right to take it by military means, claiming it was a necessary action for the security and economic interests of the United States. The document was leaked to the public, causing a storm of controversy, particularly in the North, where it was seen as an attempt to expand slavery into new territories. This caused a mass of distrust between the people. The backlash contributed to the growing sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War, and the plan was ultimately abandoned, but it revealed the extent of pro-slavery Southern interests in expanding the nation's borders. This also marks the major end of the Spanish empire.

Henry David Thoreau Walden

Franklin Pierce

1854

Henry David Thoreau's Walden is a philosophical reflection on simple living and self-sufficiency, written during Thoreau's two-year experiment living in a small cabin near Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts. In the book, Thoreau explores themes of nature, individualism, and social critique, arguing that modern life, driven by materialism and unnecessary complexity, alienates people from their true selves and from nature. He advocates for a life of quiet contemplation, independence, and a rejection of consumerism, urging readers to live deliberately and to seek deeper meaning through a closer connection to the natural world. Walden became a foundational work for the American Transcendentalist movement, which emphasized intuition, self-reliance, and the spiritual connection between humans and nature, and it continues to influence discussions on environmentalism, personal freedom, and the critique of industrial society.

Know-Nothing Party

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Know-Nothing Party was a nativist political movement that aimed to restrict immigration and limit the influence of Catholics and immigrants, particularly from Ireland and Germany. They believed that immigration was the issue to labor, not slavery. The party grew out of fears that large numbers of Catholic immigrants would threaten American Protestant values and institutions. Its members, often secretive and sworn to answer questions about their activities with "I know nothing," opposed the extension of slavery into new territories but focused mainly on anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments. The Know-Nothing Party gained brief popularity in the mid-1850s but quickly declined as sectional tensions over slavery dominated national politics.

Republican Party formed

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Republican Party was formed in 1854 in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed the expansion of slavery into new territories. A coalition of anti-slavery Whigs, Free Soilers, abolitionists, and former Democrats came together to oppose the spread of slavery into the western territories. The new party quickly gained support in the northern states, advocating for a free labor economy, protective tariffs, internal improvements, and the restriction of slavery. The Republican Party’s rise marked a turning point in American politics, ultimately leading to the election of Abraham Lincoln as the first Republican president in 1860. Directly after his election, South Carolina seceded from the union as they believed it threatened slavery.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Kansas-Nebraska Act, authored by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed settlers in those territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery through popular sovereignty. This repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery north of the 36°30′ latitude line. The act was intended to facilitate the construction of a transcontinental railroad, but it ignited fierce debates and violence, as pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions rushed into Kansas to influence the vote. The resulting conflict, known as "Bleeding Kansas," was a series of violent conflicts between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the Kansas Territory during the mid-1850s, sparked by the contentious issue of whether the territory would allow slavery following the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Walt Whitman Leaves of Grass

Franklin Pierce

Leaves of Grass is a groundbreaking poetry collection of six poems by Walt Whitman, celebrated for its bold themes of individualism, democracy, and the American experience which broke away from traditional poetic forms, reflecting his belief in the potential of the self and the nation. The collection explores themes of nature, sexuality, the body, the interconnectedness of all people, and the divine presence within ordinary life. Whitman’s inclusive and egalitarian vision of humanity is embodied in his famous poem Song of Myself, where he asserts the unity of all individuals and the sanctity of each person’s experience. It pushed the boundaries of what was seen as decent which raised public debates over what is vulgar.

Topeka Constitution

Franklin Pierce

1855

The Topeka Constitution was created by anti-slavery settlers in Kansas in response to the pro-slavery legislature set up under the Kansas-Nebraska Act. In protest of the pro-slavery government's actions, free-state settlers convened in Topeka and drafted a constitution that banned slavery and sought to make Kansas a free state. However, the federal government, under President Franklin Pierce, rejected the Topeka Constitution in favor of the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution. Despite its lack of official recognition, the Topeka Constitution symbolized the deepening divisions over slavery in Kansas, contributing to the violence known as Bleeding Kansas.

Bleeding Kansas

Franklin Pierce

1856

Bleeding Kansas refers to the violent conflict in the Kansas Territory between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions, sparked by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It led to an influx of both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers. Tensions quickly escalated, resulting in widespread violence, including clashes between armed groups, raids, and massacres. The most infamous incident was the Pottawatomie Massacre, when abolitionist John Brown and his followers killed five pro-slavery settlers. Bleeding Kansas intensified sectional tensions in Congress, exposing the failure of popular sovereignty and contributing to the collapse of the Whig Party and the rise of the Republican Party. The violence and chaos surrounding Kansas's status as a free or slave state deepened the divide between North and South, escalating the political crisis that would lead to the Civil War.

Preston Brooks/Charles Sumner clash

Franklin Pierce

1856

The Preston Brooks/Charles Sumner clash was a violent incident in the U.S. Senate when Senator Charles Sumner, a leading abolitionist from Massachusetts, delivered a fiery speech condemning slavery and specifically criticizing South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler for his pro-slavery stance. In retaliation, Preston Brooks, a South Carolina congressman and Butler's relative, physically attacked Sumner on the Senate floor. Brooks beat Sumner with a cane until he was severely injured. The attack shocked the nation, with pro-slavery Southerners praising Brooks as a hero, while Northerners viewed it as an assault on free speech and a sign of the South's growing violence over the issue of slavery so they sent him canes. This event deepened the divide between the North and South as it pitted them against each other because it bred distrust between aggression between the sides.

James Buchanan

1857-1861 Democrat

Dred Scott Case

James Buchanan

1857

The Dred Scott v. Sandford case was a landmark Supreme Court decision where Dred Scott, an enslaved African American man, sued for his freedom after living in free territories with his owner. The Supreme Court ruled against Scott, stating that African Americans could not be considered U.S. citizens and therefore had no right to sue in federal court. The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in certain U.S. territories, unconstitutional, arguing that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories. This decision effectively allowed slavery to expand into all U.S. territories which removed any opportunity to question the expansion of slavery because they were seen as property and property could be taken anywhere. The Fulton Street Revival and other Northern church movements in the mid-1800s were key in galvanizing anti-slavery sentiment, with many religious leaders and congregations advocating for abolition.

Panic of 1857

James Buchanan

The Panic of 1857 was a financial crisis in the United States caused by a combination of factors, including over-speculation in railroads, falling agricultural prices, and a banking crisis. The panic caused widespread unemployment and business failures, especially in the North, while the South, with its cotton economy, was less affected. The crisis deepened sectional divisions, with Southerners arguing that the South's reliance on cotton and slavery had shielded it from the economic collapse, while Northerners blamed the free-market system and the expansion of slavery for the instability. This caused the south to essentially act like a child to the north because they were fine. The Panic of 1857 further fueled tensions between the North and South, contributing to the political and economic stresses that would eventually lead to the Civil War.

Hinton Helper Impending Crisis in the South

James Buchanan

1857

Hinton Rowan Helper's The Impending Crisis of the South was a controversial anti-slavery book that criticized the economic and social systems of the South. Helper, a white Southern author, argued that slavery was detrimental to the economic development of the South, particularly for poor white farmers, as it concentrated wealth and power in the hands of a small elite. He believed that the institution of slavery hindered industrialization and kept Southern whites in poverty. Helper's book was widely condemned in the South and banned in many Southern states, but it gained significant attention in the North, where it fueled anti-slavery sentiment. It portrayed the South’s lack of industrialization which is why they lost the war. Though the book did not call for immediate abolition, it challenged the prevailing Southern defense of slavery and contributed to the growing sectional divide that would lead to the Civil War.

Lecompton Constitution

James Buchanan

1858

The Lecompton Constitution was a pro-slavery constitution drafted for the state of Kansas by a convention of pro-slavery settlers in the Kansas Territory. It was created amid the violent conflict of Bleeding Kansas and sought to admit Kansas as a slave state. The constitution was deeply controversial because it was written by a minority of pro-slavery delegates, and it was rejected by the majority of Kansas settlers who opposed slavery. Despite this, President James Buchanan supported the Lecompton Constitution and attempted to push it through Congress. However, it was ultimately defeated in the Senate and in a referendum vote in Kansas, which overwhelmingly rejected it. The episode deepened the sectional conflict between North and South and further illustrated the failure of popular sovereignty in resolving the issue of slavery in the territories.

Lincoln-Douglass Debates

James Buchanan

1858

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas a year after the Dred Scott Case. The debates focused primarily on the issue of slavery, with Lincoln arguing against its expansion into the territories and promoting the idea of a "House Divided" that could not endure half slave and half free. Douglas, on the other hand, advocated for popular sovereignty, the idea that settlers in each territory should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. While Douglas won re-election to the Senate, the debates elevated Lincoln’s national profile, positioning him as a strong opponent of slavery’s expansion, which helped him win the presidency in 1860. Also, Lincoln’s Free Port Doctrine led people to believe he wanted to abolish slavery further leading to this.

Raid on Harpers Ferry

James Buchanan

1859

The Raid on Harper's Ferry was an attempted armed rebellion led by John Brown, an abolitionist who sought to incite a slave uprising in the South. Brown and a group of men—both black and white—raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with the goal of seizing weapons and distributing them to enslaved people to spark a revolt. However, the raid was quickly suppressed by local militia and U.S. Marines, led by Colonel Robert E. Lee. Brown was captured, tried for treason, and executed. The raid intensified national tensions over slavery, with many in the North viewing Brown as a martyr for the abolitionist cause, while many in the South saw the raid as proof of a growing abolitionist conspiracy.

Comstock Lode

James Buchanan

1859

The Comstock Lode was a massive silver discovery in western Nevada, near Virginia City. Discovered by miners Henry Comstock and others, it was the first major silver deposit found in the United States and became one of the richest silver strikes in history. The discovery led to a rush of prospectors and settlers to the area, contributing to the rapid development of Nevada. It significantly boosted the U.S. economy, supplying silver that was used to expand the money supply and finance the Civil War. The Comstock Lode also played a key role in Nevada's statehood, as it helped the territory grow economically and population-wise, leading to its admission as a state in 1864. The lode transformed the mining industry and set a precedent for other mineral discoveries in the American West. It led to further westward expansion.

South Carolina secession

James Buchanan

1860

Following the Nashville Convention, South Carolina's secession was the first act in the series of events that led to the outbreak of the American Civil War. South Carolina formally declared its secession from the Union, citing the election of Abraham Lincoln as the final catalyst. Lincoln’s anti-slavery platform was seen by Southern leaders as a direct threat to the institution of slavery, which was central to their economy and way of life. South Carolina’s secession was followed by other Southern states, and together they formed the Confederate States of America in early 1861. The secession of South Carolina and the subsequent formation of the Confederacy marked the beginning of the Civil War, as the federal government refused to recognize the legitimacy of secession and sought to preserve the Union by force.

Montgomery Convention; Confederate States of America

James Buchanan

1861

The Montgomery Convention was a meeting held in Montgomery, Alabama, where delegates from seven seceded Southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas—convened to establish a new government. They formed the Confederate States of America, electing Jefferson Davis as its president and Alexander H. Stephens as vice president. The Confederate constitution was modeled on the U.S. Constitution but explicitly protected the institution of slavery and emphasized states' rights. The formation of the CSA marked a definitive break from the Union, and the Confederacy soon sought to establish itself as a sovereign nation, leading to the start of the Civil War when Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter in April 1861. The Montgomery Convention and the creation of the Confederate States were key steps in the Southern states' secession and the intensifying conflict over slavery and states' rights.

Crittenden Compromise fails

James Buchanan

1861

The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the Civil War by addressing the issues of slavery and sectional tensions. Proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, the compromise aimed to extend the Missouri Compromise line (36°30′ latitude) to the Pacific, allowing slavery in the territories south of the line while prohibiting it to the north. It also included provisions to protect slavery in states where it already existed and proposed federal compensation for runaway slaves. Despite gaining some support in the South, the compromise failed to pass in Congress. President-elect Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party opposed it, as it would have allowed the expansion of slavery into new territories. The failure of the Crittenden Compromise highlighted the growing irreconcilable differences between the North and South, and only a few months later, the Civil War began.