Chapter 3: Development and Learning

Stability and Change

which traits persist through life

cross-sectional research

research that compares people of different ages of the same point in time.

longitudinal research

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause potential harm

Genetic mutations

a permanent change in an organism’s DNA.

critical period

time during someone’s development in which a particular skill is learned or a certain event must occur for normal development.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

jean piaget

a developmental psycologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children, emphasizing stages through which they progress as they learn and grow.

sensorimotor stage

birth- age 2:

babies taking in the world through their senses and actions.

object permenance

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

fluid intelligence

the ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

any of the perceptually distinguish units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another

morphemes

a meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided

semantics

the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words and phrases acquire their meaning and how we interpret them with a given context.

grammar

the set of rules that govern how words are conbined to form sentences in a language

syntax

the set of rules that govern the structure of a language, determining how words and phrases are arranged to form grammatically correct sentences.

one-word stage

childrens communication where they say one word as a whole sentence

telegraphic speech

children’s communnication where they piece words together trying to make sentences

overgeneralization

tendency for stimuli that are similar to to the conditioned stimuli to elicit a similar response.

ecological systems theory

refers to a framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that explains how a persons development is influenced by various interconnected environmental systems

avoidant attachment

individuals tend to avoid closeness or emotional connection with others

anxious attachment

insecure attachment where individuals crave closeness while also fearing rejection and abandonment

disorganized attachment

a form of insecure attachment in which infants show no coherent or consistent behavior during separation from and reunion with their parents

separation anxiety

pre-operational stage

able to represent things with words and images but too young to perform mental operations

Conservation

egocentrism

theory of mind

concrete operational stage

Given concrete (physical) materials, they begin to grasp operations such as conservation.

formal operational stage

By age 12, our reasoning expands from the purely concrete (involving actual experience) to encompass abstract thinking (involving imagined realities and symbols).

Lev Vygotsky

Russian psychologist who studied how children think and learn

scaffold

a framework that offers children

temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development

the space between what a learner can do independently and then with guidance.

crystallized intelligence

dementia

microsystem

immediate family

mesosystem

immediate influences

exosystem

wider community

macrosystem

societal norms

cronosystem

interactions between these systems, all considered with the context of time

attachment

an emotional tie with another person, shown in children by seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on seperation.

authoritarian parenting

coercive; they impose roles and expect obedience

authoritative parenting

both demanding and responsive; they exert control by setting rules, but encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

permissive parenting

un-restraining; make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress in their absence, and find comfort in their return.

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.