AP Chemistry 1st Semester Final Exam Study Sheet

Flashcards covering essential topics for the AP Chemistry first semester final exam.

Metric Conversions

Use dimensional analysis with conversion factors.

Accuracy

Closeness to true value.

Precision

Consistency of measurements.

Significant Figures

Rules for counting and rounding numbers.

Scientific Notation

A way to express numbers as a × 10^n; moving the decimal left increases the exponent, right decreases it.

Density

Density = mass ÷ volume.

Temperature Conversions

K = °C + 273; °F = (9/5)°C + 32.

Nuclear Symbols

A = mass number, Z = atomic number.

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons in Ions

Neutrons = A − Z.

Rutherford Model

Gold foil experiment leading to the discovery of the nucleus.

Average Atomic Mass

Σ(isotope mass × abundance).

Quantum Numbers

n, l, ml, ms.

Electron Configuration

Rules include Aufbau's principle, Hund’s rule, and Pauli exclusion principle.

Periodic Trends

Trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electron affinity.

Bond Polarity

Determined by the difference in electronegativity between atoms.

Lewis Structures

Illustrations that show valence electrons and the octet rule.

VSEPR Theory

Describes the molecular geometry based on electron pair repulsion.

Hybridization

Mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals (sp, sp², sp³).

Sigma Bonds

Single bonds represented by sigma; double/triple bonds include pi bonds.

Molecular Polarity

Determined by the shape of the molecule and bond polarity.

Mole Concept

1 mole = 6.022×10²³ particles.

Gram ↔ Mole Conversions

Uses molar mass for conversions.

Percent Composition

(part ÷ whole) × 100.

Empirical & Molecular Formulas

Expressions that show the ratios of elements in a compound.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Ensures that the number of atoms for each element is conserved.

Stoichiometry

Calculating reactants and products in chemical reactions based on mole ratios.

Limiting Reactants

Identify which reactant will limit the amount of product formed.

Oxidation States

Charges assigned to atoms in a compound.

Acid–Base Neutralization

Reaction where an acid and base produce salt and water.

Solubility Rules

Guidelines for determining how well a solute dissolves in a solvent.

Spectator Ions

Ions that remain unchanged during a chemical reaction.

Molarity

Concentration expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution.

Dilution

Process of reducing concentration by adding more solvent.

Ions in Solution

Process of ionic compounds separating into individual ions in solution.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Describes gas behavior in terms of particles in motion.

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT, relates pressure, volume, temperature, and moles of a gas.

Dalton’s Law

Ptotal = P1 + P_2 + … for the total pressure of gas mixtures.

Gas Stoichiometry

Using the ideal gas law to relate gas volumes to chemical reactions.

Avogadro’s Law

States that volume of a gas is directly proportional to number of moles at constant temp and pressure.

Charles’s Law

V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂ describes the relationship between volume and temperature.

STP

Standard Temperature and Pressure, defined as 1 atm and 273 K.

IMFs

Intermolecular Forces including London dispersion, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding.

Boiling Point

Temperature at which a liquid phase becomes gas, related to IMF strength.

Metallic Bonding

The force of attraction between valence electrons and metal ions.

Covalent Network Solids

Strong solids formed by a network of covalent bonds.

Phase Changes

Transitions between solid, liquid, and gas such as freezing, melting, and vaporization.

Reaction Rates

Speed at which reactants are converted to products.

Collision Theory

The theory that states chemical reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy.

Rate Laws

Mathematical model describing the concentration of reactants and rate of reaction.

Second Order Rate Laws

Rate laws that depend on the square of the concentration of one reactant.