Pysch, experimentation, AOS3

Primary Data

Data collected through first hand research for an intended purpose

Secondary Data

Data that is obtained second hand through research conducted or data collected by another person for another purpose

Qualitative Data

Data that describes characteristics and qualities (it is non-numerical data)

Quantitative Data

Data that involves measurable values and quantities and can be compared on a numerical scale (numerical data).

Objective Data

Information that is observable, measurable, verifiable and free from the personal bias of the researcher

Subjective Data

Information that is based on personal opinion, interpretation, point of view or judgment.

Opinion

A judgement that is not necessarily based on proof

Anecdote

A short personal account of an event

Evidence

Verified fact

Population

The wider group of people that the research is trying to understand

Sample

The participants selected for the population who participate in the investigation

Representative Sample

The characteristics of the people within the sample represent and reflect those in the population

Sampling Technique

A procedure for selecting participation from the population to be part of the sample

Random Sample

Selecting participants from the population in such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study

Stratified Sampling

Involves dividing the population into subgroups, and participants are randomly selected from each subgroup, in the proportion that they appear in the population

Investigation Methodology

Refers to the particular type of research study

Fieldwork

A type of investigation methodology that involves collecting information by observing and interacting with a selected environment

Direct Observation and Sampling

Fieldwork that involves watching and recording participant behaviour

Participant Observation

Fieldwork conducted through participant observation involves the researcher becoming an active participant in the group that is being studied, either in a disguised way or the participants are aware of the researcher's identity and presence.

Interview

Consist of structured or unstructured questions that are answered verbally by the participant

Questionaire

A set of structured, written, open- or close-ended questions that are answered in a set format.

Focus Group

Involves a trained moderator conducting a collective interview of multiple participants.

Yarning Circles

A culturally informed alternative to focus groups that are used to explore topics with Indigenous participants through reciprocal dialogue, storytelling and informal conversations to provide an insight into the Indigenous participants' thoughts and feelings about a topic

Strengths of Fieldwork

• Information on sensitive topics can be obtained using fieldwork.

• A large amount of quantitative data can be gathered in a questionnaire in less time than for a controlled experiment.

• Participant anonymity in questionnaires can reduce dishonest or biased answers.

• Rich qualitative responses can be obtained in the participant's own words.

• Natural settings are more likely to show behaviour that reflects real life.

• If participants are unaware that they are being studied, there is no change in their behaviour due to their belief of how they are expected to behave.

• Fieldwork can be used when it would be impossible or unethical to investigate by controlled experimental methods.

• Fieldwork can help to gain insight into existing data or behaviours that were not expected.

• Fieldwork can help to gain insight into existing data or behaviours that were not expected.

Limitations of Fieldwork

• Observed behaviour is subjective and open to interpretation and bias by the researcher.

• Fieldwork is prone to social desirability bias, whereby participants respond in a way that they think they should respond, particularly if the researcher is present.

• In questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and yarning circles, participant responses may be inaccurate because of dishonesty, memory issues, difficulty communicating, language abilities or misunderstanding the question.

• Qualitative data can be difficult to summarise.

• Interviews, focus groups and yarning circles can be time consuming.

• There is minimal control over extraneous variables and results may not be replicable.

• There are ethical concerns with the lack of informed consent in some cases.

Correlation Study

A type of investigation methodology that involves planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled

Positive Correlation

A relationship in which both variables together increase or decrease

Negative Correlation

A relationship in which an increase in one variable results in a decrease in the other variable

Zero Correlation

No relationship between the variables

Strengths of a Correlation Study

• The direction and strength of a relationship between variables can be determined using a correlational study.

• They can be used to gather initial information that is investigated further or to research behaviours where controlled experiments cannot be used for practical or ethical reasons.

• Observation of real-life behaviours with no manipulation of variables may result in behaviours that are more natural.

• Secondary data can be used.

• If a relationship between two variables is determined, the value of one variable can then be used to predict the value of the other variable.

• They can be used to determine the repeatability, reproducibility and validity of measurements, and they are often high in external validity.

• Extra procedures to control for extraneous variables are not needed.

Limitation of a Correlation Study

• Correlation does not equal or imply causation, so even if a strong relationship is determined, you cannot assume that one variable causes a change in the other.

• The relationship is bi-directional, and you cannot determine which variable has more influence.

• A large amount of data is required.

• As extraneous variables are not controlled for, you cannot determine that there was not an influence of a third variable, meaning there is a low internal validity.

Case Study

A type of investigation methodology that is an investigation of a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes real-world complexities

Strengths of a Case Study

• Case studies are useful when a limited number of participants are available.

• They can be used to study experiences where it would be unethical or impossible to design and conduct a controlled experiment.

• They can provide rich qualitative data.

• They can act as a basis for further research

Limitations of a Case Study

• One person or a small group of people cannot be representative of a population, so results from a case study cannot be generalised to the population, and there is a low external validity.

• Researcher bias may influence the recording, collation and treatment of data.

• They may not be repeatable to gain more data or to test reliability of results.

• They are typically time consuming.

Personal Error

A type of error that includes mistakes, miscalculations and observer errors made when conducting research.

Measurement Error

An error where the difference between the measured value and the true value (the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly) of what is being measured.

Systematic Error

A type of error that affects the accuracy of a measurement by causing readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount or by the same proportion, each time a measurement is made

Random Error

A type of error that affects the precision of a measurement, by creating unpredictable variations in the measurement process; they result in a spread of readings

Uncertainty

Refers to a lack of exact knowledge of the value being measured

Validity

Refers to whether a measurement measures what it is supposed to be measuring

Internal Validity

Refers to a study investigating what it sets out or claims to investigate

External Validity

Rrefers to whether the results of the research can be applied to similar individuals in a different setting