BIOL 107 - UNIT 1

What are some characteristics of cells since they are mostly water?

• Molecules inside can change shape becuz they’re surrounded by water

• Able to move around in cell

Breakdown of a cell

What is an organic molecule?

• Contains carbon and hydrogen

• Carbon Dioxide is NAWT organic

• e.g methane

Carbon/Silicon based life

• Based on if it can form rings (?)

• Life is carbon based because of it’s ability to form rings, silicon can not form rings

Elements found in living cells

• DA BIG 4

  • C

  • H

  • O

  • N

• lechon 🤤🤤🤤

What is a polymer

• Poly - many things

• Monomers form chains to make polymers

Dehydration

• Water removal

• Removing H2O to make a covalent bond

• Occurs during synthesis (making things)

Hydrolysis

• Water breaking

• Molecule breaks down into smaller parts by adding a molecule of water

  • H2O splits into H+ and O2-
    

• Occurs during break down of molecules (think of how the H2O is being split into the new fragments)

Carbs (sugars)

• Made of monomers = monosaccharides

• 5+6 carbon monosaccharides are usually in ring structures

• Functions as energy souce and building other molecules (carbon source)

Monosaccharide formula

• CnH2nOn

what the freaky is a dimer

• Disaccharides

• 2 monosaccharides joined tgt

• Functions as energy and carbon source

Making sucrose requires?

• Dehydration reaction

• becuz synthesis!!!!!!

Ogliomers

• made of ogliosaccharides

• -structure 3-10 monosaccharides joined tgt

Polymers

• made of polysacchardies

• 100s-1000s of glucose joined tgt

What are the 2 glucose ring structures?

• Alpha → NAG*

• Beta → NAM*

• Polysaccharides made from alpha and beta glucose
  * modified glucose

Diff types of polysaccharide

• Alpha

• Beta

• NAG

• NAM

Glycogen

• Polymer of alpha glucose

• Energy storage in animal cells

!! Glycogen → think alpha wolves need energy → in animal cells

Starch

• Polymer of alpha glucose

• Energy storage in plants

!! Think potato → best vegetable → alpha glucose

• → potato is a vegetable → plant enegry storage

Cellulose

• Polymer of beta glucose

• Cell walls in plants

!! Think cellulose → losing is BETA → betas put up emotional walls → cell wall for plants!

Chitin

• Polymer of NAG

• Cell walls in yeast

• exoskeleton in anthropods

!! think cheating!

• ppl who cheat can get yeast infections (cell wall in yeast)

• ppl who cheat are insects → exoskeleton in anthropods

• NAG ppl who cheat

Proteins

• Amino acids

• Monomers are amino acids

• Polymer is a protein

Draw amino acid structure (charged or uncharged)

Classifying Amino Acids

• Look for R group!

Nonpolar side chain characteristic

• only C + H

Uncharged polar side chain characteristic

• Hydroxyl group (OH)

Acidic (negative charge) side chain

• Carboxyl group (COOH)

Basic (+ charged) side chain

• Amino group (nitrogen w/2H or positive charge on R group)

Structure of protein

• Polymer = polypeptide

• Amino acids join tgt to make polypeptide (joined by peptide bonds)

Amino acids when joined tgt are called amino acid residues, true or false

TRUE

How do polypeptides turn into proteins?

• Polypeptides need to fold into a specific shape to become a protein

• Polypeptide chains fold into lowest energy shape possible (all happening in water)

What models show proteins and what are the advantages of each

• Ribbon model: able to see folds and backbones

• Space filling model: able to see overall shape

Primary structure

• Sequence of amino acids

• Held by covalent bond (peptide bond) btwn AA

• Primary structure determines secondary structure (e.g determines if alpha helix or beta sheets), tertiary structures, quaternary structure

Secondary structure

• Regioins within polypeptide

• H Bond btwn backbone

1) Alpha helix

2) Beta sheet

Tertiary structure

• Various bond btwn side chain (R group)

Quaternary structure

• when there is 2 or more polypeptides

• Bonds btwn side chains

True or false: Proteins are regulated (able to be turned on or off) by phosphate groups

TRUE!!!!!

True or False: Some proteins are not attached to Ogliosaccharides

False, some proteins are attached to ogliosaccharides

Protein functions

• Enzymes: cause chemical reactions to take place

• Transporters: move molecules across membrane

• Defensive proteins: Protection against disease e.g antibodies

• Storage: Storage of amino acids

• Hormonal: Coordination of an organism‘s activities e.g insulin

• Receptor: Response of cell to chemical stimuli

• Contractile and motor proteins: for movement e.g actin/myosin

• Structural: for support e.g keratin

Types of nucleic acid

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic): Stores information for cells

• RNA (ribonucleic acid): allows info stored in DNA to control the cell

What is nucleic acid made up of?

• Monomers are nucleotides!!

• bases: C,T,A,U,G (nitrogenous bases: rings with nitrogen)

• Sugars: Deoxyribose and ribose

• Phosphate groups (1,2,3 [monophosphate, di…,tri…])

Combinations

1) base + sugar = nucleoside

2) nucleoside + 1-3 phosphates = nucleotide

3) 2+ nucleotides = nucleic acid

Reading nucleic acids

3 Letters

(x)XXX

• last two x’s are abbreviations for phosphate (e.g DP = diphosphate)

• If there is a little d in the front = deoxyribose, if none = ribose

Nucleic Acid shape

• H bonds between certain bases give DNA and RNA molecules their shape

What is strand character of DNA?

• Double stranded!

Length of RNA molecules

• Single stranded

• Measured in nucleotides

Length of DNA molecules

• Double stranded

• Measured in base pairs

ahmad: it’s almost like there’s ginormous boobs in front on me 🤓

me: son i’m crine

Nucleic acids - functions

• ATP is also used for energy

• ATP + H2O → ADP and inorganic phosphate

Types of P

• Phosphorus atom: P

• Phosphate group: Yellow P

• Inorganic phosphate: Grey P

GTP function

• GTP is also used to regulate proteins

• Adding phosphate can activate/deactivate protein

Function of nucleotide table

Protein and Nucleic acid Units table

Lipids Common properties

• NAWT polymers (not long chain of anything)

• Mostly hydrophobic (water hating)

Fat component

• 3 Fatty Acids

• 1 Glycerol

= Triglyceride!!!!! (fat/oil)

Fats/oil function

• Energy storage

Fats

• Contain only saturated fatty acids

• Solid at room temp

• Example: butter

Saturated meaning

• Primary carbon interaction is a single bond

• Single bonds = straight

Oils

• Contain one or more unsaturated fatty acid

• Liquid at room temp

• Example: olive oil

Unsaturated meaning

• Carbons are double bonded

• Have bends!

Phospholipid structure

• 2 fatty acids

• 1 glycerol

• 1 phosphate group

• 1 small organic group

= phospholipid

Amphipathic molecule

• Partly hydrophobic

• Partly hydrophilic

• e.g hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

What do phospholipids do in water

• Spontaneously form bilayers in water

Glycolipids

• Similar in composition and identical in shape with phospholipids

• Have monosaccharide instead of phosphate

Steroids

• Cholesterol: membranes in animal cells precursor for other lipids

Steroids Function

• Molecules to Make membrane

• Make other lipids (hormones)

Steroid hormones

• Communication used btwn cells in animals

• Cells send small molecules (hormones) to communicate to cells far away

Waxes

• Hydrophobic

• Soft and waterproof material

  used by bees and tropical plants

What is used as energy storage?

Carbs and lipids

Carbs as energy storage

• Easy to break down

• Remove monosaccharide to break down

Lipids as energy storage

• Lots of energy per kg

• Efficient energy storage

Long term storage in humans?

Fats

Short term storage in humans?

Glycogen

Glycogen

• Body’s stored form of glucose

• In liver and muscles

• “Quick“ energy

Why do cold blooded animals use oil

• Stays liquid in cold environments

Oil as energy storage

• Lots of energy

• Harde to make

• Put carbon double bond in fatty acids

• Won’t solidify in low temperatures

Lipopolysaccharide

• lipid and sugar

• User in some bacteria cell walls

• Giant glycolipid

Peptidoglycan

• Used in most Bacteria cell walls

• Proteins and polysaccharides

Cofactors

• small molecules that are part of proteins

• Some proteins req. cofactors to be functionable

e.g Heme is an organic cofactor

Fe+ is an inorganic cofactor

Cell reproduction (few cells)

• Long chain breaks down into smaller chains

• Produce amino acid or sugar (specialization)

Why are most cells small? [The surface area to volume problem]

• import nutrients through surface

• expel waste

• small size = enough SA which make sit more efficient in transporting nutrients and waste

• If cell is too large volume would increase faster than SA

Specialization cells

• 200 different

RBC function

• Transport oxygen from lung to body tissues

• Carry CO2 waste back to lungs

• oxygen entering/leaving

Intestine function

• Import nutrients from gut into body

• Nutrients enters and leaves

What surrounds cells?

• Plasma membrane

Functions of the plasma membrane

• Contain cell contents

• Allows specific molecules to enter or leave

• Flexible

• All cells have plasma membranes

• All plasma membranes have transport proteins

Unicellular

• One cell

Multicellular

• Many cells

Phospholipid bilayer (structure)

• Hydrophilic head

• Hydrophobic bilayer

• Surrounded by water

• Automatically arranges itself

• Flexible

• Forms Spontaneously

• Moderatley fluid

Cholesterol

• Amphipathic

• Between phospholipids

• Helps phospholipids maintain moderate fluidity

• Prevents leaking at high temps

• Prevents solidifying at low temps

Types of membrane proteins

• Integral – span phospholipid bilayer

• Peripheral – connected to an integral

membrane protein

Draw membrane protein

membrane proteins functions

• Transporters (move molecules)

Carbohydrates

• Protection for cells

• Glycolipids and glycoproteins face outwards to protect the cell

Animal cell plasma membranes

• Don't have a cell wall for protection

Membrane has:

• phospholipids

• membrane proteins

• cholesterols

• carbohydrates

Human RBC plasma membrane

a) Antibodies

b) RBCs

c) Glycolipids

d) Integral membrane proteins

Antibodies

• made by white blood cells (WBCs)

• stick to antigens on target cells (all cells have antigens on the surface)

• small proteins

Human Blood type and Antigen

glycolipid
Everyone has one or more of:

A-antigens

B-antigens

H-antigens

Integral membrane protein
Most, but not all, people

have D-antigen proteins

Plant cell plasma membranes

• Have a cell wall for protection

Membrane has just (simpler bcuz of cell wall):

• phospholipids

• membrane proteins

Prokaryotic (Bacteria) cell plasma membranes

• Have a cell wall for protection

Membrane has just (simpler bcuz of cell wall):

• phospholipids

• membrane proteins

Why and how do you increase membrane surface area

• More membrane = more membrane

proteins = more things done by membrane protein

• Outfoldings (human intestine)

• Infoldings (some bacteria)

• Internal membranes (all eukaroytes)

  • increase Sa but maintain same voume