UC Berkeley Psych 1 Exam 1

neurons

nerve cells where brain processes messages

glia

support the neurons in many ways--insulating, synchronizing activity, removing waste

cell body

contains nucleus

dendrites

widely branching ("tree"), receive transmissions

axon

single, long, thin, straight fiber, branches at tip

action potential

excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength

resting potential

electrical polarization across membrane

terminal bouton

presynaptic ending

neurotransmitter

chemical that can activate receptors on other neurons

post-synaptic neuron

neuron on receiving end of synapse

Parkinson's disease

1% of people over 50; difficulty initiating voluntary movement, slow movement, tremors, rigidity, depression

dopamine

neurotransmitter

physiological explanation

describes mechanism that produces a behavior

evolutionary explanation

relates behavior to the evolutionary history of the species

electroencephalograph (EEG)

uses electrodes on the scalp to record rapid changes in brain electrical activity

magnetoencephalograph (MEG)

records magnetic changes

positron-emission tomography (PET)

records radioactivity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin with and without oxygen in different brain areas

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

bundles of nerves between the spinal cord and the rest of the body

cerebral cortex

outer covering of forebrain

occipital lobe

rear of head, specialized for vision; damage causes cortical blindness

temporal lobe

sides of head, hearing and complex aspects of vision

parietal lobe

forward from occipital, specialized for body senses

primary somatosensory cortex

back end of parietal lobe, cells sensitive to touch in different body areas

frontal lobe

forward end; includes PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX

primary motor cortex

important for planned control of fine movements

prefrontal cortex

back of frontal lobe

pons and medulla

control muscles of head

spinal cord

controls muscles from neck down and reflexes

reflexes

rapid, automatic response to a stimulus

cerebellum

part of hindbrain; important for aim or timing

autonomic nervous system

controls internal organs, heart, etc.

endocrine system

glands that produce hormones and release them into the blood

hormones

chemicals released by glands and conveyed by the blood to alter activity in various organs

corpus callosum

set of axons that connect left and right hemispheres of cerebral cortex

epilepsy

condition in which cells somewhere in brain emit abnormal rhythmic, spontaneous impulses

binding problem

question of how separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object

stimulants

drugs that increase energy, alertness, and activity

depressants

drugs that decrease arousal

alcohol

class of molecules that includes methanol, ethanol, propyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol); ethanol=drinks

tranquilizers; anxiolytic drugs

help people relax

narcotics

drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, decreases responsiveness

opiates

either natural drugs derived from opium poppy or synthetic drugs with a chemical structure resembling natural opiates

endorphins

bind to the opiate receptors; neurotransmitters that inhibit the release of substance P and thereby weaken pain sensations

hallucinogens

drugs that induce sensory distortions

stimuli

energies from the world around us that affect us

receptors

specialized cells that convert environmental energies into signals for the nervous system

electromagnetic spectrum

light; continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy

pupil

adjustable opening in the eye though which light enters

iris

colored structure on the surface of the eye

retina

layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball

cornea

rigid transparent structure on the outer surface of the eyeball

lens

flexible structure that can vary in thickness

accommodate

the eye's ability to adjust its focus for objects at different distances

fovea

central area of the human retina

presbyopia

impaired ability to focus on nearby objects because of decreased flexibility of the lens (presby=old)

myopia

nearsighted

hyperopia

farsightedness

glaucoma

increased pressure within eyeball; can damage optic nerve and impair peripheral vision, creating tunnel vision

cataract

disorder in which the lens becomes cloudy

cones

adapted for color vision (fovea)

rods

adapted for vision in dim light (most)

dark adaptation

gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light

ganglion cells

neurons that receive their input from the bipolar cells

optic nerve

axons from the ganglion cells joined; exits eye

trichromatic theory; Young-Hemlholtz theory

color vision depends on the relative rate of response by three types of cones

opponent process theory

system of paired opposites (red vs. green, yellow vs. blue, white vs. black)

negative afterimages

experiences of one color after the removal of another

color constancy

tendency of an object to appear nearly same color under a variety of lighting conditions

retinex theory

color perceived through cerebral cortex's comparison of various retinal patterns

cutaneous senses

skin senses; somatosensory system

substance P

neurotransmitter for intense pain

phantom limb

continuing sensation of an amputated body part

absolute sensory threshold

intensity at which a given individual can detect a stimulus 50% of the time

signal-detection theory

study of people's tendencies to make hits, correct rejections, misses, and false alarms

subliminal perception

stimulus can influence our behavior even when it is presented so faintly or briefly that we do not perceive it consciously

brightness contrast

increase or decrease in an objects's apparent brightness by comparison to objects around it

feature detectors

respond to the presence of certain simple features, such as lines and angles

waterfall illusion

if you stare at a waterfall for a minute or more and then turn your eyes to some nearby cliffs, the cliffs will appear to flow upward

Gestalt psychology

focuses on our ability to perceive overall patterns

figure and ground

object from the background

reversible figures

stimuli that can be perceived in more than one way

proximity

tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group

similarity

tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as forming a group

continuation

filling in the gaps

closure

imagining the rest of the figure

common fate

perceiving objects as being part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time

good figure

a simple, familiar, symmetrical shape

visual constancy

tendency to perceive objects as keeping their shape, size and color, despite certain distortions in the light pattern reaching our retinas

induced movement

incorrectly perceive the object as moving against a stationary background

stroboscopic movement

illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images

depth perception

perception of distance

retinal disparity

difference in apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas

convergence

degree to which they turn in to focus on a close object

binocular cues

depend on both eyes

monocular cues

judge depth and distance with one eye

optical illusion

misinterpretation of visual stimulus

moon illusion

moon close to the horizon appears about 30% larger than it appears when it is in the sky

memory

retention in information