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Psychodynamic Perspective
Tthe approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control.
Behavioural Perspective
Focuses on how behaviour is acquired or modified by environmental consequences such as rewards and punishments.
Cognitive Perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior.
Biological Perspective
The psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior.
Cross-Cultural Perspective
Analyzing human social phenomenon by comparing that phenomenon in different cultures.
Evolutionary Perspective
Perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share.
Humanistic Perspective
The psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices.
Critical Thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Peer Reviewers
Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Falsifiable
Able to be disproven by experimental results.
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Case Study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Self-Report Bias
systematic errors that can occur in self-report data because participants are unable or unwilling to answer accurately
Sampling Bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Representative Sample
A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Variable
A factor that can change in an experiment
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Illusory Correlation
perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists
Regression towards the mean
The tendency for unusual events (or emotions) to return to their average state
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Single-Blind Procedure
research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group
Double-Blind Procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.
Placebo Affect
A response to a fake drug, caused by subjects' belief that they are taking real drugs
Independant Variable
the thing that will be changed in each experiment
Dependant Variable
the variable that relies on the independant variable
Counfounding Variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Experimenter Bias
a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Qauntitative Research
Measureable, numbers based researched
Qaulitative Research
Interpreation based, descriptive, research
Informed Consent
An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debreifing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Descriptive Statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Central Tendency
a measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole
Percentile Rank
the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores
Skewed Distribution
an asymmetrical but generally bell-shaped distribution (of opinions); its mode, or most frequent response, lies off to one side
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
Inferential Statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Meta-Analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Effect Size
a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect
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