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Background
one factor that could explain incorrect memories is the fact that memory is reconstructive. from the information we stored in memory, we deduce what actually happened. therefore, information from other events may be used in the reconstruction. we may read about an event we have witnessed in the newspaper or the reconstructive process could be affected by questions we are asked about the event.
Aim
to investigate the effect on memory of the words used in questions about a witnessed event
Hypothesis
Experiment 1: when participants are asked to estimate speed, their answers will be affected by the wording of the question
Experiment 2: the words used in questions will affect participants' later memory of what they had seen
Participants
Experiment 1: 45 students in groups of various sizes
Experiment 2: 150 students in groups of various sizes
Procedure
Experiment 1: seven films were shown, each depicting a traffic accident. the length of the films ranged from 5-30 seconds. following each film, participants received a questionnaire asking them first to give an account of the accident and then answer a series of questions. one of these questions was a critical question. nine participants were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" equal numbers of the remaining participants were asked with the verbs 'smashed', 'collided', 'bumped', and 'contacted' in the place of 'hit'. a different ordering of the films was presented to each group of participants. (5 experimental conditions)
Experiment 2: a one-minute film depicting a multiple car accident was shown to the participants. the accident lasted for 4 seconds. at the end of the film, participants received a questionnaire asking them first to describe the accident in their own words, and then to answer a series of questions about the accident. the critical question was the one that asked about the speed of the cars. 50 participants were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed together?" whereas 50 others were asked the same question with the word 'hit' replacing 'smashed'. 50 participants in the control group were not asked about the speed of the cars. one week later, participants returned and without viewing the film again they answered a series of questions about the accident. the critical question (embedded in a series of 10 questions) was "Did you see any broken glass?" which was answered by 'yes' or 'no'. (there was no broken glass at the scene).
Results
Experiment 1: as hypothesized there was a clear difference between the mean estimated speeds depending on the verb used (highest estimated speed associated with the word 'smashed')
Experiment 2: the use of different verbs affected whether the participant claimed having seen any broken glass (stronger verb --> higher tendency to expect broken glass)
Conclusion
memory can be distorted based on the use of different words because people have pre-established schemas for the context of the different verbs. memory is suggestive, malleable, and subjective as it can be partially altered, emphasizing that memories are never objective recalls (we are active information processors).
(debate between genuine memory change and response bias --> genuine memory change)
Method
lab experiment IV: verbs used DV: speed-estimate (independent measures design)
Critical thinking: methodological considerations
strengths:
cause and effect relationship
increased control and accuracy
objectivity
standardization
internal validity limitations:
total control = impossible
artificial (lacks mundane realism)
biased results
Critical thinking: alternative explanations
if not all the participants speak English as a first language, thhe different connotations of intensity between the words may vary, thus manipulating the validity of the results
Critical thinking: gender bias
although the gender of the participants is not specified, it can be assumed that both men and women participated, hence broadening the scope of applications (the age of the participants influences driving experience and thus perception; driving experience)
Critical thinking: ethical considerations
the study was partially ethical as there was informed consent, confidentiality, presumed debriefing, the participants had the ability to withdraw, and they were protected from mental and physical harm; however, they were deceived (use of leading questions)
Critical thinking: cultural considerations
although the ethnic and cultural background of the participants was not revealed, the location of the experiment suggests that it is culturally biased (USA=WEIRD country); for non-native English speakers the words may have different meanings
Critical thinking: applications
eye-witness testimonies, criminal investigations, source criticism
How does this study demonstrate the aspects of reconstructive memory?
this study demonstrates the theory of reconstructive memory as it displays that humans are active processors, rebuilding the recollection of an event from a compilation of smaller previous memories. as the participants' speed estimates were influenced by the use of different verbs, it supports the idea that memories are not stored in complete units but are rather recalled by linking together several pieces of information, thus implying that the reconstructive nature of memory based on schema processing could explain memory distortions.
