Studied by 5 people
memory definition
what are the types of memory
sensory register/memory (SR)
short term memory (STM)
long term memory (LTM)
what is the sensory register
A short duration store that holds information we have gained through the 5 senses.
what is short term memory
the limited-capacity memory store
what is long term memory
the permanent memory store
what was the original view of memory
memory was a unistore - one big 'cupboard' for all memories
what caused the view of memory to change from the unistore model
the multistore model
how is information kept in the STM
its kept in the memory for more than a few seconds fdue to maintenance rehearsal
coding definition
the format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
capacity definition
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
duration definition
The length of time information can be held in memory store
how is encoding used in the sensory register
information is picked up by our sense organs in whatever form they are specialised for - visual, sound, touch, smell and taste
what is visual coding called
iconic
what is sound coding called
echoic
what is the capacity in the sensory register
unlimited as each of our sense organs contains milluins of cells
what is the capacity in the LTM
unlimited as our brains create new connections in response to new long term learning, so it doesnt get 'full up'
what are the three LTM stores Tulving suggested
episodic = memories of events from the past
semantic = knowledge
procedural = actions
characteristics of episodic memories
memories of events of episodes
times stamped
people, places and things are woven together to create one memory
memories may be easily and quickly accessed but only with conscious effort
characteristics of semantic memory
contains our knowledge of the world; facts; things and their meanings
not timed stamped
memories may be quickly and easily accessed but only with conscious effort (declarative)
characteristics of procedural memory
memory for actions and skills
we dont have to use conscious or effortful reacall; we do the tasks without necessarily being aware of what we're doing (non-declarative)
not timed stamped
what are the two forms LTM can come in
declarative and non-declarative
definition of forgetting
what are the two explanations for forgetting in the LTM
interference
retrieval failure
what is interference
two types of interference: a memory an e interfered with by information that has come before or information which comes later
interference is more likely when the material is similar
memories are not lost but just temporarily unavailable due to interference
what are the two types of interference
proactive and retroactive
proactive interference definition
Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
retroactive interference definition
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is again greater when the memories are similar.
Why does retrieval failure occur?
forgetting due to an absence of cues; the information isnt lost but inaccessible
cue definition
a 'trigger' of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by encoded at the time of learning indirect cues may be external or internal
what format can cues come in
any format
how can cues be learnt
deliberately learnt - e.g. mnemonic
accidentally learnt - e.g. smells
meaningful - e.g. something that just happens to have been encoded at the time
eye witness testimony definition (EWT)
the ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. Accuracy of EWT can be affected by factors such as misleading information and anxiety
misleading information definition
Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event. It can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people.
what are the two types of misleading information
leading questions
post event discussion
leading question definition
a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer. For example, 'was the knife in his left hand?' leads a person to think that's where the knife was
definition of response bias explantation
definition of altered memory
how can post event discussion take place
with other witnesses
with interviews
post event discussion definition (PED)
occurs when there is more than on witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people. This may influence the accuracy of each witness's recall of the even
what is the research on capacity by Joseph Jacobs
digit span
how did Jacobs study research on capacity (digit span)
how much information can STM hold at one time
the researcher reads out four digits and the participant recalls these out loud in the correct order. If this is correct the researcher reads out five digits ect
what were the findings of Jacobs study on capacity (digit span)
the mean span of digits across all participants was 9.3 items - the span for letters was 7.3
what did George Miller do in his research in the span of memory and chunking
made observation of everyday practice
e.g. he noticed that things come in sevens: seven notes on music scale, seven days
Miller thought that the span of STM is about 7 items plus or minus 2
he also noted that people can recall five words as easily as they can recall five letters (done through chunking)
what is chunking
Grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks
how did Margaret and Lloyed Peterson research duration in STM
tested 24 students in 8 trials each
on each trial the student was given a consonant syllable to remember
they were given a 3 digit number and were told to count back from this number until told to stop - to prevent any maintenance rehearsal
the varying time periods were 3,6,9,12,15, or 18
findings of Margaret and Lloyed Peterson research on duration in the STM
after 3 seconds the average recall was about 80%
after 18 seconds it was about 3%
this suggested that STM duration may be about 18 seconds, unless we perform maintenance rehearsal
how did Harry Bahrick et al study duration in LTM
392 American participants aged between 17 and 74
school yearbooks were obtained and recall was tested through:
photo recognition test consisting of 50 photos
free recall test where participants recalled all the names of their graduating class
findings of Harry Bahrick et al study duration in LTM
participants tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition and 60% accurate on free recall
participants tested within 48 years had a recall of 70% photo recognition and 30% free recall
showing LTM may last up to a lifetime for some material
strength and weakness of research into coding
strength = separate memory stores limitation = artificial stimuli
how is separate memory stores a strength for research into coding
it identified a clear difference between two memory stores
later research shows that there are some exceptions to Baddeley's findings but the idea that STM is mostly acoustic and LTM is mostly semantic stood
this is important to understanding memory - which led to the multi-store model
how is artificial stimuli a limitation for research into coding
Baddeley's study used artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material
e.g. the word lists had no personal meaning to participants so his findings may not tell us much about coding in different memory tasks
this suggests limited aplication
strength and limitation of research on capacity
strength = valid study limitation = not so many chunks
how is valid study a strength for research on capacity
it has been replicated in controlled studies since, even though the study is old and could have resulted in confounding variables
this suggests its a valid test for digit span in STM
how is not many chunks a limitation for research on capacity
he may have overestimated STM capacity
Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity in STM is only about 4 plus of minus 1
suggesting a lower end of Miller's estimate may be more appropriate
strengths and limitations of research on duration
strength - high external validity limitation - meaningless stimuli in STM study
how is high external validity a strength for research on duration
the researchers investigated meaningful memories
when studies on LTM were conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered recall rates were lower
suggesting his finding reflect a more 'real' estimate of duration on LTM
how is meaningless stimuli in SM a limitation for research on duration
stimulus material was artificial
study isnt completely irrelevant as we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless material. Even so, recalling consonant syllables doesnt reflect most eveyday memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful
this means it lacked external validity
who came up with the multi-store mode
richard atkinson and richard shiffrin
case study explaining the multi-store model
HM
what happened to HM
he underwent brain surgery to relieve his epilepsy
his hippocampus was removed
when his memory was assessed in 1955 he thought it was 1953
he couldnt form new long term memories but performed well on tests of immediate memory span
strengths and limitations for the MSM
strength = research support limitation = - more than one STM store
elaborative rehearsal
how is research support a strength for the MSM
Alan Baddely found we tend to mix up words that sound similar when we are using our STMs, but we mix up words that have similar meanings when using out LTMs
these studies show that STM and LTM are separate and independent memory stores as claimed in MSM
how is more than one STM store a limitation for the MSM
Shallice and Warrington studied KF who had amnesia - his STM for digits was very poor when they were read out loud, but his recall was better when he read the digits
KF showed there could be another STM store, showing MSM is wrong in claiming theres only one STM store
how is elaborative rehearsal a limitation for MSM
prolonged rehearsal isnt needed for transfer to the LTM
according to the MSM it matters about the amount of rehearsal as the more rehearsal makes it likelier more is transferred to the LTM
elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage, this occurs when you link the information to existing knowledge - meaning information can be transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal
this suggests the MSM doesnt fully explain how long term storage is occured
strengths and limitations for the types of long term memory
strength = - clinical evidence
real world application limitation = conflicting neuroimaging evidence
how is clinical evidence a strength for long term memory
case studies on HM and Clive Wearing showed episodic memory in both men were severely impaired due to brain damage, but their semantic memory was relatively unaffected
their procedural memory was intact - Clive Wearing could play the piano
this supports Tulving's view that there are different memory stores in LTM - one can be damaged but others can be unaffected
how is real world application a strength for the types of long term memory
understanding types of LTM helps psychologists to help people with memory problems
as people age they have memory lost, but research shows this is specific to episodic memory
Belleville devised an intervention to improve episodic memories in older people - the trained participant performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group
this shows the distinguishing between LTM types enables the development of specific treatments
how is conflicting neuroimaging evidence a limitation for types of LTM
Buckner and Peterson reviewed evidence regarding the location of semantic and episodic memory
they concluded that semantic memory is located in the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic memory is on the right
other research links the left prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic memory and the right with episodic retrieval
this challenges the neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory as there is poor agreement on where each type may be located
who came up with the WMM
Baddeley and Hitch
what does the central executive do
it has a 'supervisory role'
monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocates subsystems to tasks
it had very limited capacity and doesnt store information
What does the phonological loop do?
it deals with the auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives
what is the phonological loop divided into
phonological store and articulatory process
what is the phonological store
Stores the words you hear
what is the articulatory process
Allows for maintainence rehearsal
the capacity of this loop is believed to be 2 seconds worth of what you can say
What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?
stores visual and/or spatial information when required
it has limited capacity (about 3/4 objects)
What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad consist of?
inner scribe and visual cache
what is the visual cache
Stores visual data
what is the inner scribe
Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
what does the episodic buffer do
this was added by Baddely in 2000
it is a temporary store of information, integrating the visual, spatial and verbal information processed by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing (records events)
it links working memory to long term memory and wider cognitive processes such as perception
strengths for WMM
clinical evidence
dual task performance
how is clinical evidence a strength for WMM
case study on KF showed he had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual information normally
KF's phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad was inact
this supports the existence of sepahow is drate visual and acoustic memory stores
how is dual task performance a strength for WMM
supports the separate existence of visuo-spatial sketchpad
when Baddely's patients carried out a visual and verbal tasks at the same time their performance on each was similar to when tasks were separate
when both tasks were visual performance on both declined as both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem
this shows there is a seperate subsystem (VSS) that processes visual input
limitations of WMM
nature of the central executive
how is nature of the central executive a limitation of the WMM
Baddely recognised this as he said the central executive was the most important but least understood
the CE needs to be clearly specified than just being 'attention'
meaning the CE is an unsatisfactory component, which challenges the integrity of the WMM
in what type of memory does interference occur in
LTM as we cant access the memories even though they're available
when do proactive interference and retroactive interference get worse
when memories are similar
how was the effects of similar memories studied
McGeoch and McDonald changed the amount of similarity between two sets of materials. Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until 100% accuracy
they then had to learn a new list
there were 6 groups of participants who had to learn different lists
findings of the research effects on similarity in memory
when participants were asked to recall the original list, the most similar material produced the worst recall
this shows that interference is strongest in similar memories
explanation for effects of similarity in memory
the reason similarity affects recall could be due to:
previously stored information that makes new information hard to store (proactive interference)
new information overwrites previous similar memories (retroactive interference)
case study example of interference and what happened and their findings
Burke and Skrull
presented a series of magazine adverts to participants who had to recall the details of what they'd seen
in some cases they had more difficulty recalling earlier adverts, in some they had problems with later adverts
strengths and weaknesses for interference
strength = - real world interference
support from drug studies limitations - interference and cues
how is real world interference a strength for interference in memory
evidence for interference in everyday situations
Baddely and Hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they played in the season
the players all played for the same time interval, but the number of intervening games varied due to missed games
players who played the most games had the poorest recall
this shows interference in some real world situations - increasing validity
how is support for drug studies a strength of interference in memory
evidence of retrograde faciliation
they gave participants a list of words and later asked them to recall the list, assuming the intervening experiences would act as interference
when the list was learnt under the influence of the drug diazepam recall a week later was poor, compared to the placebo group
when list was learnt before the drug recall was better suggesting the drug prevents new information reaching the brain, so it cant interfere retroactively
this shows that forgetting can be due to interference - reduce interference and reduce forgetting
how is interference and cues a limitation for interference in memory
interference is temporary as it can be overcome by cues
researchers gave participants a list of words organised into 2 categories, one at a time
recall averaged about 70% for first list but became worse on the next
at the end of the study participants were given a cued recall test causing recall to raise to 70% again
showing interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to material
What does the encoding specificity principle state?
that a cue has to be both 1) present in encoding and 2) present at retrieval
examples of bib meaningful cues
context- dependent forgetting = recall depends on external cue
state-dependent forgetting = recall depends on internal cue
how was context dependent forgetting studied
deep sea divers who work underwater were studied to see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater
the divers learnt a list of words either underwater and on land and were asked to recall the words underwater or on land
findings of the context depended study on forgetting
the environmental contexts of learning and recall matched, whereas the others didnt
accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions
they concluded that the external cues available at learnung were different ones at recall explaining retrieval failure
how was state-dependent research on forgetting conducted
they gave participants an antihistamine drug as they had a mild sedative effect, making the participants slightly drowsy
this creates a different physiological state to the 'normal' one
participants the learnt list of words, passages and prose and then recall them
findings of the state-dependent research on forgetting
there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall performance on the memory test was significantly worse.
when cues are absent there is more forgetting
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