psyc 134 exam 4

problem

when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal (also when it is not immediately obvious how to get to a solution), they need to be identified before they can be solved

well-defined problems

are easy to identify and solve (ex: a maze and crossword puzzles)

ill-defined problems

are hard to identify and solve (ex: breaking up with someone, picking a career, resolving housing issues)

problem representation

the way a problem is translated (or represented) in our mind, a problem may be represented to us in the same way… but we may represent it differently, resulting in different approaches to solve the problem (ex: different ways of starting a puzzle)

Gestalt approach to problem solving

whole is greater than the sum of its parts

problem restructuring

the process of changing a problem’s representation (perceiving and representing in a different way), ex: “If the length of a circle’s radius is r, what is the length of x? we first 1. perceive: that x is unknown, 2. represent: that the image as spatial representation, and 3. restructure: the triangle as part of a rectangle whose diagonal equals x, which is also r (we restructure as a way to get to the solution)

insight

sudden realization of a solution to a problem

insight problems

require a sudden realization to be able to solve (ex: the triangle problem where participants are told to move three dots in the triangle to get it to move down), in the study of the median warmth rating there were more cold ratings compared to non-insight problems

non-insight problems

have a gradual, step-by step process to solution, (ex: algebraic problems that can be worked through analytically), have a hot rating compared to insight problems in the study of median warmth rating

functional fixedness

tendency to focus on similar functions or uses of objects

candle problem

have to mount the candle to the wall so it burns without dripping wax on the floor, you’re given a box of matches, thumbtacks, and the candle, the solution requires thinking of the box as a platform, not a container, which is hard to do because we tend to think of its rigid function (functional fixedness), it is easier to overcome functional fixedness when the tacks are presented outside the box therefore it requires restructuring of the objects function

two string problem

have to tie together the two strings hanging from the ceiling, you’re given pliers and a chair, it becomes easy to overcome functional fixedness when they can see the strings can swing

mental set

preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, prior examples can establish a mental set that inhibits participants from using simpler solutions later on

water jug problem

measure a specific quantity of water from 3 empty jugs of varying capacities, if solved using the steps on the right (more complicated steps) which uses the first water jug, the problem established a mental set

information-processing approach

problem solving is a search between the posing of a problem and its solution

initial state

conditions at the beginning of a problem with the information-processing approach

goal state

solution to the problem with the information-processing approach

intermediate states

conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem with the information-processing approach

problem space

all possible states that can occur when solving a problem with the information-processing approach, relates to the goal state because they help to describe all possible intermediate states

operators

actions that take the problem from one state to another, they govern how you move between initial and goal state, (ex: 1. shortest time travel depending on direct flights, layovers, etc, and 2. cost within budget of flights)

means-end analysis

there are many ways to get from the initial state to the goal state, this includes reducing the differences between the initial and goal states by creating sub-goals,

mutilated checkerboard problem

“if we eliminate two corners of a checkerboard, can we cover the remaining squares with dominos?”, this red and black board emphasizes differences so it is hard to see the information-processing approach doesn’t work

blank condition

solving the mutilated checkerboard problem with a blank white board that does not emphasize the difference between the squares therefore is easier to solve

Russian marriage problem

“can the matchmaker come up with 31 heterosexual marriages among the 62 survivors?” putting the 64 people in a blank checkerboard makes the problem easier to solve however the information processing approach does not do a good job at explaining this

analogical problem solving

attempting to solve a problem using the solution to a similar problem (friend analogy where they apply a solution to what you’re going through because they went through something similar)

analogical approach

the Russian marriage solution can be used to solve the mutilated checkerboard problem

analogical transfer

experience solving one problem is transferred to another problem, transfers are from the source problem to the target problem, requires that you notice, map, and apply the analogy

target problem

the problem you are trying to solve (ex: the mutilated checkerboard problem)

source problem

another problem that is similar to and may illustrate a way to solve the target problem (ex: the Russian marriage problem)

radiation problem

deciding between killing tumor with high intensity rays but destroying healthy tissue or not destroying healthy tissue with low intensity rays but not destroying the tumor (is the target problem), solution of using low intensity rays from many directions is found through the analogical transfer of the fortress story

fortress story

capturing fortress by dividing the army into few soldiers going into different paths to capture the fortress and overthrow the dictator (is the source problem)

radiation problem solution

30% solved it after listening to the fortress story, but 75% solved it far better after applying the fortress story to find a solution

analogical paradox

it can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but we routinely use analogies in real-world settings

expert

someone knowledgable or skilled in a particular area, experts solve problems in their field more quickly and more often than beginners (ex: a teacher manages her students on day 10 compared to day 1 because she gains experience), experts also possess more knowledge about their field compared to novices since they organize their knowledge differently than novices

creativity

the use of imagination or original ideas

Steve Jobs creativity concept

said that creativity is just connecting things, creative people just see something that seems obvious to them after a while, therefore creativity is making connections between existing ideas

divergent thinking

thinking that is open-ended and involves a large number of potential “solutions” (ex: thinking about many ways to use a paper clip)

creative cognition

technique to train people to think creatively therefore divergent thinking can be taught

creative problem solving is

a process

daydreaming

purposeful mind wandering you can engage in to increase creativity

solitude

avoiding distractions; giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning to increase creativity

mindfulness

paying attention to what is happening in our mind and in the environment to increase creativity