Personality Psychology: Foundations, Theories, and Biological Perspectives

Personality Psychology

The study of consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes within individuals; focuses on stable thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and individual differences.

How Personality Differs From Clinical/Counseling Psychology

Personality = understanding typical functioning, traits, processes. Clinical/counseling = diagnosing, treating disorders and problems.

Individual Differences

Stable, predictable patterns of behavior, emotion, and cognition that vary between people and remain consistent across time and situations.

Intrapersonal Functioning

Internal psychological processes (motivation, emotion, cognition) that influence how a person interprets and responds to the environment.

Why Both Personality & Situation Influence Behavior

Behavior results from the interaction between personal traits and the situation; situations shape possibilities, personality shapes individual responses.

Parsimony

The simplest explanation that still accounts for the data is the best; avoids unnecessary complexity, is easier to test, and predicts clearly.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Theory = broad, organized explanation. Hypothesis = specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Hypothesis-Testing Sequence

1. Form theory → 2. Derive hypothesis → 3. Design study → 4. Collect data → 5. Analyze results → 6. Revise theory.

p = .05 Meaning

There is a 5% chance the results occurred randomly; results are statistically significant if p < .05.

File Drawer Problem

Studies with null results remain unpublished, causing bias in the literature toward positive findings.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated or categorized (the 'cause').

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured as the outcome (the 'effect').

Reliability

Consistency of measurement; poor reliability = unstable or inconsistent results.

Case Study: Strengths

Rich detail, unique cases, hypothesis generation.

Case Study: Weaknesses

Poor generalizability, subjective, no causal conclusions.

Freud's Levels of Mind

Conscious = awareness; Preconscious = accessible memories; Unconscious = repressed instincts, fears, motives.

Id

Pleasure principle; instinctual, immediate gratification.

Ego

Reality principle; mediator, rational thought.

Superego

Moral component; standards, guilt, ideals.

Pleasure Principle

Id's drive to avoid pain and seek immediate gratification.

Reality Principle

Ego's ability to delay gratification and navigate real-world limits.

Libido (Life Energy)

Psychic energy tied to life and sexual instincts; fuels behavior.

Thanatos

Death/aggressive instinct; destructive impulses.

Fixation

Being 'stuck' at a psychosexual stage due to over/under gratification; carries into adulthood.

Freudian Slip

Accidental speech/behavior revealing unconscious motives or conflicts.

Free Association

Saying whatever comes to mind; uncovers unconscious material.

Dream Interpretation

Dreams reveal unconscious wishes; 'royal road to the unconscious.'

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious distortions that protect the ego from anxiety.

Repression

Pushing disturbing thoughts out of awareness.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.

Projection

Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts to another.

Displacement

Redirecting emotion onto a safer target.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable behavior.

Regression

Returning to earlier developmental behavior.

Reaction Formation

Behaving opposite to unconscious impulses.

Intellectualization

Using excessive logic to avoid emotion.

Defensive Style

A person's typical set of defense mechanisms.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Eight developmental stages across lifespan; emphasizes identity, relationships, growth.

Identity Crisis

Struggle during adolescence to form a coherent identity.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Midlife concern with productivity, legacy, caring for future generations.

Major Limitation of Freud's Theory

Not testable, based on case studies, lacks scientific validity.

How Neo-Freudians Differed From Freud

Less emphasis on sex; more on social influences, relationships, culture, and conscious processes.

Striving for Superiority

Motivating force to overcome inferiority and grow.

Inferiority Complex

Overwhelming sense of inadequacy; leads to helplessness.

Birth Order Effects

Firstborn: responsible, anxious, authority-focused; Middle: adaptable, competitive; Youngest: pampered, charming; Only child: mature, sometimes spoiled.

Parenting Risk Factors

Pampering, neglect → future interpersonal problems.

Source of Neurosis

Unhealthy or rejecting interpersonal relationships.

Three Coping Trends

Move Toward (seeking approval), Move Against (competitive, aggressive), Move Away (withdrawal).

Coping Strategies

Problem-focused → solve issue; Emotion-focused → manage feelings; Avoidant → push away the problem.

Coping Flexibility

Ability to switch strategies based on what the situation requires.

Catharsis

Emotional release; modern research shows venting anger increases aggression.

Secure Attachment

Trust, comfort with closeness.

Avoidant Attachment

Detachment, discomfort with intimacy.

Anxious Attachment

Clingy, fear of abandonment.

Four-Style Model (Bartholomew)

Secure: low anxiety, low avoidance; Preoccupied: high anxiety, low avoidance; Dismissing: low anxiety, high avoidance; Fearful: high anxiety, high avoidance.

Core Assumptions of Trait Approach

Traits are stable, measurable, and predict patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior.

Achievement Motivation

Desire for mastery and success; high achievers choose moderately difficult tasks.

Optimistic Explanatory Style (3 Ps)

Negative events are not Permanent, not Personal, not Pervasive → linked to resilience.

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

Projective test measuring unconscious motives through storytelling.

Barnum Effect

Believing vague, general statements describe you personally.

Trait-Behavior Correlations

Usually r = .20-.30; small but meaningful across situations and time.

Big Five Traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Surface vs. Deep Traits

Surface = observable behaviors; Causal traits = underlying dispositions causing behaviors.

Allport's Trait Contributions

Cardinal, central, secondary traits; initiated modern trait theory.

Criticism of Trait Labels

Too vague; describe behavior but do not explain causes.

Cross-Cultural Achievement Findings

Individualistic = personal success; Collectivistic = group harmony, not letting others down.

Emotional Expressiveness & Relationships

Higher expressiveness → better communication, intimacy, satisfaction.

Heritability of Personality

~40-50%; half genetic, half environment.

Eysenck's Major Dimensions

Extraversion-Introversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism.

Cortical Arousal Theory

Extraverts = low baseline arousal → seek stimulation; Introverts = high baseline arousal → avoid stimulation.

Brain Asymmetry

Left = positive mood, approach; Right = negative mood, withdrawal.

Right Hemisphere Activation

Fear, anxiety, sadness; withdrawal tendencies.

Inhibited Temperament

Fearful, cautious, shy in infancy; slow to warm up.

Neuroticism & Stress Reactivity

High neuroticism → stronger emotional reactions, slower recovery.

BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System)

Sensitive to punishment; anxiety; avoidance.

BAS (Behavioral Activation System)

Sensitive to rewards; impulsivity; excitement.

Goodness of Fit (Child Temperament)

Optimal development occurs when environment matches child's temperament.

Mate Preference Research

Men prefer youth/attractiveness (fertility); Women prefer resources/stability (investment potential).

Not 'Nature vs Nurture' but...

'How do genes and environment interact to shape personality?'