Ap European History Semester 1 Final Review

Italian vs. Northern Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance occurred in the 14th century. The causes of the Italian Renaissance was economic prosperity, trade, industry, and banking. Focused on humanism, and individualism. In contrast, the Northern Renaissance, which took place in the 15th and 16th centuries, was marked by a focus on religion and humanism, influenced by the printing press, and featured artists like Jan van Eyck.  During this time, the printing press was invented which caused the ideas of the Renaissance to spread throughout Europe.The Italian Renaissance emphasized secular themes and classical antiquity, whereas the Northern Renaissance integrated religious concepts with humanist thought, highlighting moral reform and social criticism.

Characteristics of Renaissance art

Italian: use of geometric perspective, classical themes, and emphasis on human emotion. Northern: detailed realism, religious subjects, and use of light.

Urban society

Characterized by the growth of cities and trade, leading to a shift from rural to urban lifestyles during the Renaissance. This societal structure promoted cultural exchange and economic development.

Humanism

Humanism is the study of classical manuscripts with emphasis on man’s dignity and potential. It stressed man’s natural abilities. It was an intellectual movement based on study of the classical literary works of Rome and Greece. Humanists studied rhetoric, grammar, ethics, history, moral philosophy, and poetry. Humanists taught in universities and secondary schools. They would hold positions as professors of rhetoric or give lectures. Other humanists were at the courts of princes or popes or served as secretaries in the chancelleries. Petrarch is the father of humanism.

Banking and Medici

The Medici bank controlled industries for silk, wool, dying of textiles, and the mining of alum. It expanded from the production of cloth to real estate, banking, and commerce. It was the greatest bank in Europe. It had a sudden decline at the end of the 15th century due to loans and bad leadership.

Daily life during the Renaissance

During the Renaissance, there was a heavily divided social class which made life difficult with peasants working the land and the nobles living lavishly. The middle class of merchants and artisans emerged in growing cities. Everyone lived within strong family structures, followed customs, and practiced faith.

Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) made multiple diplomatic missions to Germany and France. He wrote many books. One of his most famous, The Prince he wrote in 1513. It is still one of the most famous books involving political power in the western world. He was among the first to not use morality as the basis of political activity. He entered the Florentine republic four years after the Medici family was expelled. He was a republican and after he, among many others, were expelled, he was forced to give up politics.

Erasmus

(1466-1536) He was a Dutch humanist, classical scholar, and theologian. He was considered the greatest of the Northern Renaissance and was known for advocating for the Christian reform from within the Catholic Church. He criticized abuses, and published the first printed Greek New Testament. He was from the Netherlands and wrote In Praise of Folly. He paved the way for the Reformation but remained Catholic.

The Printing Press

Was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. The development of the printing press allowed for mass production. It improved the productions of vernacular literature like books, bibles, and other written works. It is one of the most vital inventions to come out of the renaissance. Gutenberg's bible was the first actual book in the west that was produced by movable type printing. Printing grew to be one of the most abundant and important industries in Europe.

Key Artists

Italian: Leonardo da Vinci: He was a painter and inventor, he painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

Michelangelo: He was a sculptor and painter. He painted David, Pietá, and the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Raphael: He was a painter. He painted the School of Athens and the Madonna series.

Donatello: He was an early Renaissance sculptor and painter. He sculpted the David statue.

Northern: Albrecht Dürer: He made engravings and paintings. Ex) The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: He painted peasant scenes. Ex) Hunters in the Snow.

Hans Holbein the Younger: He painted portraits. Ex) The Ambassadors.

War of the Roses

(1450s-1485) The Wars of the Roses pitted the ducal house of Lancaster against the ducal house of York. Both houses claimed the right to the English throne. This conflict was settled by King Henry VII with his court of the Star Chamber. Because of this war, the Tudor dynasty began and the conflict ended major noble power struggles and stabilized England.

The Unification of Spain/Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand

(1469-1502) The unification of Spain was a dynastic union between the two rulers of Spain (Isabella Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon). They created a powerful political partnership called the Catholic Monarchs. This unification strengthened Spain and the royal government. They formed the greatest army in Europe by the 1500s. They gained power over the Catholic church. The unification of Spain caused a strong monarchy to emerge, Spain rose as a major power, and Spain sponsored Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage to the Americas.

Habsburgs

The Hapsburgs were one of the most powerful royal families in all of European history. They ruled for nearly 700 years. They controlled Austria (homeland), Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Parts of Italy, the Netherlands, Europe, and later in their rule, Hungary and Bohemia. They came to power through strategic marriages. They created an empire that influenced religion, politics, and culture across Europe. They supported catholicism. In the 1500s Phillip II and Charles V controlled the HRE, Spain, Austria, and colonies in the Americas. The family split into 2 branches: Spanish Habsburgs who ended in the 1700s, and Austrian Habsburgs who continued ruling until WWI in 1918.

John Wycliffe

(1328-1384) John Wycliffe was an English scholar, early church reformer, and theologian. He criticized the corruption and wealth of the medieval Catholic church. He believed that scripture was the highest authority for christians rather than the church. He argued that people should have access to vernacular bibles instead of just latin bibles. He and his followers were the first to complete the English translation of the Bible. He was one of the first figures to push for religious reform. Church leaders condemned his actions and after he died he was declared a heretic and his writings were banned. His ideas spread throughout England with the help of the printing press and influenced later reformers. He was a precursor to the Protestant Reformation.

Jan Hus

(1369-1415) Jan Hus was a Czech priest and early critic of the Catholic church. He is considered a vital forerunner to the Protestant Reformation. He preached against corruption in the church (selling indulgences). He supported the ideas of John Wycliffe. He was summoned to the Council of Constance and he was arrested, tried for heresy, and burned at the stake in 1415.  Because of his execution, the Hussite wars started. (A series of rebellions in Bohemia). His ideas later influenced leaders like Martin Luther.

Pope Leo X

(1475-1521) He ruled from 1513-1521 and was the pope during the start of the Protestant reformation. He was born Giovanni de’ Medici, he was a member of the Medici family of Florence. He helped make Rome a center of Renaissance creativity. He added to the financial issues the Church had. He authorized the sale of indulgences. He demanded that Martin Luther recant his 95 theses, and in 1521 he issued a papal bull that condemned Luther’s teachings and he excommunicated Martin Luther. He supported the Renaissance arts and he failed to address corruption and reform within the church.

Nepotism

People born from popes, princes, and the nobility were given good jobs. During the Renaissance, politics were mainly influenced by family power, specifically in Italy. Rulers believed that the best way to keep control was to put trusted family members in positions of power. The Catholic Church relied heavily on family networks. Nepotism was most common in the Papacy as several renaissance popes appointed relatives as cardinals. Nepotism caused numerous problems like, unqualified officials held major positions, there was increased corruption within governments and the church, it contributed to sparking the Protestant Reformation. Nepotism helped powerful families continue to rule, but it spread corruption and weakened the trust in political and religious institutions during the Renaissance.

Martin Luther

(1483-1546) He split with the church. He vowed to become a monk if he survived a bad thunderstorm. He was a major leader in the Protestant reformation. He wrote 95 theses. The 95 theses were printed and the ideas from them spread all throughout the world. He was sentenced for his works to be burned. Luther organized a reformed church. Lutheranism was established and spread.

Thomas More

(1478-1535) He was the son of a lawyer, he had a good education. He was interested in classical learning, and he was proficient in Latin and Greek. Thomas became Lord Chancellor of England (one of the highest reaches of power). He was very close with Erasmus, and he proposed a new social system: A utopian society.

Christian humanism

Second half of the 15th century. Christian Humanism is the new classical learning. It focused on the sources of Holy scriptures, writings of church fathers, and other sources of early christianity. It spread to Northern Europe through the printing press, and created a movement. The major goal of this movement was to reform christianity.

Quickening Rebellion

(1760s-1770s) American colonists became increasingly resistant and angry towards British rule. This was caused by Britain enforcing new taxes to pay for war debt (Stamp Act, Sugar Act, Tea Act). The British tightened control over trade and colonial governments. The rebellion grew because of protests and boycotts spreading, groups like the Song of Liberty formed. The Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party intensified tensions. Britain responded to this with harsh punishments (the intolerable acts). This pushed colonists closer to unity. The result of this rebellion was the formation of the first Continental Congress, open fighting at Lexington and Concord, and the Declaration of Independence in America.

Indulgence Controversy

In the 1500s, the Catholic church started to sell indulgences which essentially bought you less time in purgatory before you eventually went to heaven or hell. The selling of indulgences was one of the main triggers of the Protestant Reformation.  The reason why selling indulgences was so controversial was because the church was using money in personal ways like to build the St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Johann Tetzel was one of the main sellers of indulgences. People were upset with the church because people believed the church was exploiting believers for money. Indulgences were considered fraudulent because it made it appear that forgiveness could be bought, not earned through repentance or faith. Martin Luther’s 95 theses caused massive religious debate and the rise of Protestant churches. Major reforms occurred in the Catholic church.

Peasants revolts

Early 16th century. The peasants were unhappy and a lot of them were unaffected by the economic improvement. The peasants were abused. Thomas Müntzer convinced the peasants to revolt. Martin Luther disagreed with the peasants' revolt. Luther openly stated why the peasants revolted in the first place. In May 1525, German princes could finally control the peasants.

Transubstantiation

A doctrine in Roman Catholic theology that declares the belief that during the lords supper the bread and wine used during the sacrament, the bread and wine used transformed into the blood and body of Jesus. (A change of substance while the outside appearance remains the same). The Protestants rejected this idea and they rejected the idea that the Lord’s supper was a proprietary sacrifice.

News forms of Protestantism…Calvinism, Anabaptists, Church of England

Calvinism (1536-1564)-In the 2nd generation of protestant reformers. Theologian. They were major organizers of the protestant movement. They shared views with Martin Luther. They believed in predestination (The belief that when you are born you're predestined to go to heaven or hell). Calvinism spread to the Netherlands, Scotland, Europe, and France.

Anabaptists (1525-1561)-Radicals who rejected magisterial reformation. They were mainly leaders, peasants, and miners. They were extremely affected by economic changes, and they advocated adult baptism over infant baptism. They believed in complete separation of church and state. There were varieties of anabaptists. In New Jerusalem, anabaptists took control of the city and burned every book, including the bible.

Church of England (Anglican Church) (15th and 16th centuries): During the protestant reformation, the Church of England broke from Rome. The English Reformation was initiated by King Henry VIII. King Henry tried to divorce his wife to marry Anne Boleyn, but it was very difficult. 400 religious houses closed in 1526. The King confiscated their lands which left the previous land owners barren. Henry had many wives but never seemed to be happy. 

Religious Wars (France, conflict in Germany)

France Wars of Religion: (1562-1598) Started when Guise murdered a peaceful congregation of Huguenots. Kings guards killed important leaders of the Huguenots. This caused a wave of violence and people were slaughtered in the streets. Henry III assassinated the duke of Guise. French Wars of Religion increased religious tolerance and the rise of the Bourbon dynasty in France. 

Germany: In February of 1531, Lutheran princes and imperial cities formed a defensive alliance called the Schmalkaldic League. They were allies with the Holy Roman Empire. It was reestablished after the Battle of Muhlberg. The Battle of Muhlberg was from 1546-1547 and the Emperor's forces defeated the Lutherans. There was conflict between the HRE between Emperor Charles V and the Schmalkaldic league. The German peasant’s revolt also occurred in the 16th century. The peasants were unhappy and a majority of them were unaffected by the economic improvement. Peasants were abused. Thomas Müntzer convinced the peasants to revolt. Martin Luther disagreed with the peasants' revolt. Luther openly stated why the peasants revolted in the first place. In May of 1525, German princes could finally control the peasants.

Henry IV…Bourbon dynasty/politiques/ Edict of Nantes/ Huguenots

Henry IV of Navare was a protestant becoming king. He converted to Catholicism.

Politiques: They were people who believe that politics should be prioritized over religion.

Bourbon Dynasty (1589-1793): A European monarchy that ruled in France, Spain, Naples, and Sicily. Louis XIV was the most powerful Bourbon monarch, and he believed in the divine right of kings. The Bourbon dynasty was one the most powerful monarchies in Europe.

Edict of Nantes (1598)-Acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France. Guaranteed the huguenots the right to worship in certain places. It also recognized the rights of the protestant minority. Huguenots were granted permission to enjoy all political privileges. It only let the protestant have these privileges because they had to. 

Huguenots (16th-18th centuries): They were protestants who fled to France because of the European Wars of Religion. They were French Calvinists.

Tudor Family…creation of the Church of England/ Mary and Elizabeth

(1485-1603): English and Welsh dynasty. They came to power when Henry VII ended the War of the Roses by defeating Richard III. He united the houses of Lancaster and York which brought stability.

Mary I (1553-1558): She tried to restore Catholicism and had the nickname, “Bloody Mary”

Elizabeth I (1558-1603): She brought stability, strengthened protestantism, defeated the Spanish Armada, and led England into the English Renaissance. The Church of England was created by Henry VIII when he broke away from the Roman Catholic Church. In 1534 Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy and declared Henry the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Education and society at this time

A new view of family was developed. The family could become the focus of people’s lives instead of religion. The wife obeys her husband and has babies. Protestant schools catered to a wider audience. Indulgences and celibacy were abolished.

Loyola

Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits. He was a priest and theologian.

Spanish Armada/ revolt in Netherlands

The Spanish Armada was sent in 1588. It was a large Spanish fleet of naval boats. It was assembled by King Philip II, and the goal of the Armada was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I. The Armada failed, and diminished Spain’s seaward dominance. It made England become a major maritime power.

Revolt in the Netherlands (1568-1648): Went against rule of the Spanish Empire. Separated northern provinces. Driven by political, religious, and economic factors. This revolt established the independent Dutch Republic and reshaped politics in Europe. It also contributed to the decline of the Spanish power much like the Spanish Armada.

Three Gs (Motives)

God: Spreading Christianity

Gold: Economic motives (wealth)

Glory: Kings and Queens finding land to gain more power

Who dominated early exploration…key explorers and countries involved

Portugal: Dias-Cape of good Hope 

Da Gama-To India

Spain: Christopher Columbus (1492-1502): Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer. He explored the coastline of Cuba and the north shores of Hispaniola. Portugal refused to sponsor him, so Queen Isabella of Spain sponsored his expeditions.

Magellan: around the world

Spice Trade

The trading of spices and herbs across the globe (mainly from Asia to Europe). It occurred in the 15th century. In 1498, Vasco de Gama made the very first sea voyage from Europe to India. The goal of his mission was to find a more direct trading route to a place where the spices were abundant and cheap. 

Spanish empire

It started when Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored Christopher Columbus on his voyage to the Americas. Spain was able to conquer lots of land and become one of the greatest empires in European history. The empire spread Catholicism and gained lots of wealth from the Americas. 

Natives and consequences

When Europeans came to the Americas, they brought disease, violence, and they stole land from the Natives. Many natives that lived in the Americas had not before been exposed to diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza, and this led to a massive population decline. Along with bringing diseases, the Europeans overtook and forced many natives off their land. The Spanish Conquistadors also started wars, enslaved natives, and forced labor systems which caused a population decline. When the Spanish came to the Americas, another one of their goals was to spread Christianity which caused the native americans culture to be diminished and destroyed.

New World vs. Old World (East Asia)

The Old World is where the Protestant Reformation occured. During this time period, Martin Luther was challenging the Catholic church, and new protestant groups formed (Anabaptists, Calvinists, and Anglicans). Europe became divided and numerous religious wars took place like the French Wars of Religion. In response to the reformation, the Catholic church responded with the counter-reformation (The Jesuits, and the Council of Trent). Europe underwent major political, religious, and cultural transformation. 

The New World was the Americas and was affected when the Europeans traveled to the Americas. A majority of the early colonizers were Catholic and they spread Catholicism throughout missions and colonizations. After the reformation, Protestant nations (ex. England and the Netherlands) started to colonize and spread protestant beliefs. The native americans became targets of missionaries from both the Catholic and Protestant groups. Religion in the Americas changed greatly after they were colonized.

Columbian exchange

(1400s-1600s)-The spread/trade of disease, food, animals, plants, and other goods between the Americas, Africa, Europe, and Asia. People died due to the spread of disease, and profit was brought into regions due to new profit opportunities.

Slave Trade

The Transatlantic Slave Trade (1500s-1800s) forced millions of africans to the Americas by European Traders. Men and women slaved were packed tightly onto ships traveling across the Middle Passage to make a grueling journey to the Americas. Survivors were sold at auctions and forced to work on plantations and mines.

Missionaries

15th-19th centuries. Catholic missionaries were more active in spreading christianity than protestant missionaries. Fanned out to various parts of the Spanish Empire. They brought Indians together to villages. The Indians were converted, and then taught to trade and grow crops.

Mercantilism

17th Century. the belief that the total volume of trade was unchangeable. States guarded their economics by hoarding precious metals, enacting trade policies, and supporting trading companies.

Bullion

Bullion is a precious metal (gold or silver). Bullion was used by European nations to measure wealth and power during the age of exploration. It was central to mercantilism.

Commercial capitalism…Dutch

The Dutch built one of the world's first commercial capitalist economies. It was centered on trade, banking, and shipping. Dutch merchants invested in overseas trade to earn profit. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Dutch West India Company were joint-stock companies. The Dutch overtook trade in spices, textiles, sugar, and shipping across Atlantic and Indian Oceans. This system helped standardize banks, credit, investment, and insurance which influenced modern capitalism.

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) An agreement between Spain and Portugal approved by the pope that divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe. There was an imaginary line down the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal got the lands east of the line and the line was created to prevent conflict between the two countries as they explored new territories.

Encomienda system

Mid 1500s-17th century. Economic and social system that allowed the conquering Spaniards to take Indians and use them as laborers. The holders of this were supposed to be kind to the laborers, listen to their needs, and pay them. The Spanish ignored this and brutalized the Indians.

30 years war…countries involved, phases, leaders, conclusion

(1618-1648) Lots of the fighting took place on Germanic lands of the Holy Roman Empire. Known as the last of the religious wars. Divided into four major phases. This turned into a Europe-wide struggle. Many historians think this war was part of a larger conflict of European leadership through the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg dynasty of Spain.

Bohemian Phase (1618-1625): Began in the Habsburgs territories. Archduke Ferdinand was asserted as king, but he was a catholic and many of the nobles were Calvinists. They rebelled against him in 1615. Frederick and the bohemian nobles were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain. Emperor Ferdinand established Catholicism as the main religion.

Swedish Phase (1630-1635): Entered the King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, into the war. He was a Lutheran. His army attacked Germany. Gustavus was killed in the Battle of Lützen. The imperial army defeated the Swedes which pushed them out of Germany. This kept Southern Germany Catholic.

Franco-International Phase (1635-1648): The final phase of the 30 years war. CatholicFrench were supporting the protestant swedes against the Catholic Habsburgs of Spain and Germany. Religious issues were becoming less important. The battle of Rooroi ended Spanish military greatness.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648):This ended the war in Germany and ensured that all German states were free to choose their own religion. France gained parts of Germany’s land. Religion and politics became completely separate.

Witch Craze

(16th and 17th centuries): The medieval church started to associate witches with the devil which made witchcraft a heresy. Hundreds of thousands of people were accused of witchcraft and most were elderly women. The hysteria spread from Europe to numerous other places through the use of the printing press.

Inquisition

The Spanish inquisition (1478-1834): Was still active and targeted Jews, Muslims, Protestants, and others who were declared heretics. It shifted from broad religious persecution to enforcing Catholic conformity in Spain and its colonies. It banned certain books and restricted the spread of Protestantism and enlightenment ideas.

Louis XIV

(1643-1715) Louis and his court set a standard for monarchies and aristocracies all over Europe. He relied on other nobles for his ministers rather than royal princes and the high nobility. He restructured the central policy making machinery of the government. He eliminated the royal princes from the royal council. His control over ministers and secretaries gave him control of central policy making machinery of government. Louis experienced lots of financial issues. He issued the Edict of Fontaebleu and revoked the Edict of Nantes. This closed protestant schools and destroyed Huguenot churches. Jean-Baptiste Colbert helped Louis with financial issues. Peasants were taxed heavily. Four wars occurred during his reign between 1667-1713. 1st: Invaded the Spanish Netherlands. The Triple Alliances of the Dutch, Swedes and English forced Louis to sue for peace in 1668. 2nd: France invaded united provinces. The Dutch war ended because Luis made peace at Nimwegen in 1618. 3rd: the war of the League of Augsburg. 8 year struggle. Led to an economic depression and famine. The Treaty of Ryswick ended the war.  4th: the war of the Spanish Succession. Lasted 11 years. Ended with Peace of Utrecht and Rastall.

Stuarts…James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II

James I (1603-1625): Supported divine right theory, created poor relations with parliament. Commissioned English version of the bible (King James Bible). He had poor relations with Catholics and puritans.

Charles I (1625-1649): Parliament passed Petition of Right controlling the king's power. Charles did not call parliament until 1640, needing money due to war with the Scots. 1642: civil war beings. 1649: tried by parliament and was sentenced to death.

Charles II (1660-1685): Exiled during common wealth. Yield to parliament's authority.

James II (1685-1688): Outraged people with pro-catholic actions, birth of son aroused fear.

Divine-right monarchy

The divine right belief was that when you were born you were destined to be a king/queen or not by god. It was also believed that the monarch is God’s chosen representative on earth.

Absolutism vs. constitutional monarchy

Absolutism (17th century): The sovereign power/ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of  a king who claimed to rule by divine right. Kings were given their power by God, but a monarch’s power was often limited by practical realities.

Constitutional monarchy: A system of government where a king or queen shares power with a constitution. The monarch’s powers are limited by the law and most governing authority is held by the parliament.

Cardinal Richelieu

(1624-1642): Louis XIII’s chief minister. Transformed Huguenots into more reliable subjects by ridding with their political and military rights but not preserving religious ones. He created policies that strengthened the monarchy. Developed a network of spies to uncover noble plots which eliminated a major threat to noble authority.

Cardinal Mazarin

(1602-1661) was the chief minister of France after Cardinal Reichelieu and served during the early reign of Louis XIV. He ruled France while Louis was a child. He continued to strengthen the absolute monarch and he acted as the political advisor to Queen Anne of Austria, the regent for young Louis XIV. He helped end the Thirty Years’ War with the Peace of Westphalia of 1648.

Bossuet

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704): He was a French bishop and one of the most important defenders of absolute monarchy during the reign of Louis XIV. He believed in divine right and he believed that kings must rule justly. His ideas became the ideological foundation of Louis XIV’s rule. 

Jean Bodin

(1530-1596): He was a French political thinker best known for developing the theory of sovereignty which became a foundation for strong centralized states. He believed that a state must have sovereign authority and he supported a strong monarchy but not tyranny. He believed that rulers should follow natural and divine law.

Court life in Versailles

The court life was designed to centralize power, control the nobility, and display the king’s absolute authority. Lavish rituals surrounded the king. Novels were required to spend much of the year at Versailles, keeping them dependent on the king and away from their regional power bases. Life revolved around etiquette, rank, and favor. Daily life consisted of grand parties, dances, operas, hunts, and constant spectacle, all to glorify Louis XIV. Court life kept nobles busy, competitive, and politically weak. It also reinforced absolutism and the image of Louis XIV as the “sun king”.

Brandenburg…Hohenzollern dynasty (Prussia)

The Hohenzollern dynasty was the ruling family that transformed Brandenburg into Prussia, forming the core of modern Germany. Brandenburg was a territory in northern Germany ruled by the Hohenzollerns in the 1400s. In 1618, they gained control of Prussia and combined it with Brandenburg to Brandenburg-Prussia.

Frederick the Great Elector

(1640-1688) Frederick William built a strong professional army and centralized the government. He strengthened the military and bureaucracy. Prussia became a major European power under his rule, known for discipline, efficiency, and military success.

General War Commissariat

A Prussian military and administrative agency created by Frederick William in the mid 1600s. It was the foundation of Prussia’s famously strong and efficient state. It was originally designed to collect taxes to fund the army. It expanded to supervise local government, giving the central state more control over towns and nobles. Staffed largely by Junkers (Prussian nobles) who supported the monarchy through military service. It helped Prussia become one of the most militarized and centralized states in Europe.

Peter the Great

(1689-1725): He was a crude man who made a trip to the west, and then he became determined to Europeanize/westernize Russia. He was a very demanding leader. He formed the first Russian army. He also reorganized the government and westernized mercantilism and trade which greatly improved Russia;s economy and wealth. From (1700-1721), His main objective was to make Russia a great military power and state. He wanted to open Russia to the West. The Great Northern War occurred and he found St. Petersburg. He modernized Russia and under his rule, Russia became a great military power. 

Emergence of the Ottoman Empire

It began in the late 13th century in Northwestern Anatolia founded by Osman I. It grew from a small Turkic principality into a major empire spanning Southeast Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Golden Age of the Dutch Republic

17th century. The united provinces were one of Europe’s great powers. The Netherlands was independent from Spain. Economic prosperity. The population increased, and Amsterdam became Europe’s financial and commercial center of Europe. It became the crossroads for trade. Amsterdam became vital to Europe’s center for finances and trade.

Polish state (Partition of Poland)

A series of 3 divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 1700s by neighboring powers, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which erased Poland as an independent state for over a century. First Partition (1772): Russia, Prussia, and Austria took large territories from Poland. Second Partition (1793): Russia and Prussia seized even more land; Poland became much smaller. Third Partition (1795): Poland was completely divided among the three powers. The Partition of Poland showed how European powers exploited weaker states.

English Civil War…know key terms

(1642-1646): Parliament was the victor of the 1st phase of the war. Oliver Cromwell was a leader of the New Model Army. The army was composed of a majority of more radical independents. There was a split in the parliamentary forces. A second civil war occurred in 1648. Led to the execution of Charles I. The commonwealth was established. Ideas of individual rights were promoted.

Glorious Revolution

(1688): William and Mary created an army while James, his son, and wife fled to France; this all occurred without bloodshed. A declaration and Bill of Rights was enacted in 1689. The Bill of Rights confirmed parliament's ability to create laws and adjust taxes. End of the 17th century struggle between king and parliament. England became a constitutional monarchy.

Mannerism

(1520s-1530s): Reflected the environment of wanting spiritual experience. An attempt to break down the high renaissance principles of harmony, balance, and moderation. Created an atmosphere of confusion and anxiety in their art. Spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. Distorted proportions and elongated figures. Distorted usual art.

El Greco

(1541-1614) a Greek-born painter who became one of the most famous artists. Known for his mannerist style: elongated figures, dramatic poses, and vivid colors. He combined Byzantine, Renaissance, and Spanish influence. His art emphasized emotion, spirituality, and tension rather than realism.

Baroque…key artists

(1575): Embraced by Catholic reform movement. Resisted in England, France, and the Netherlands. Used dramatic effects to create emotions. Spread to the rest of Europe. Began in Italy. Baroque churches and palaces were richly detailed. Baroque replaced mannerism and began in Italy.

Key artists: Caravaggio (Italy): Dramatic realism chiaroscuro. Artemisia Gentileschi (Italy): Female painter known for painting strong female figures. Rembrandt: made history paintings and portraits. He influenced many artists and painters who came after him.

Dutch Realism

Dutch painters wanted to portray the secularism of everyday life. Finest product of the Dutch Golden Age: Painting of Rembrandt Van Rijn. He was a very skilled painter who made very colorful paintings and portraits. Baroque paintings focused on portraying emotions unlike the DGA paintings by Rembrandt.

Shakespeare…Elizabethan age

William Shakespeare was the son of a prosperous glove maker. He wrote numerous plays and he was very good at story telling and was an expert of the English language. Theater was one of the most creative forms of expression. Lope De Vega was a very influential playwright of the time. Public play houses were in every major town. Spanish plays were dispersed to parts of the Spanish empire. French playwrights wrote for a more elite audience. They created a style that enhanced the emotional and imaginative.

Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679): He believed that humans are naturally selfish and violent. He argued for a strong absolute government to maintain order and prevent chaos. Social contract: people give up their rights to a sovereign in exchange for security. He influenced ideas supporting the absolute monarchy.

John Locke

(1631-1704): He believed that humans are generally reasonable and capable of cooperation. He believed that humans have natural rights: Life, liberty, and property. He also believed that the government exists to protect those rights. He influenced modern democracy and liberal thought, including the American and French revolutions.

Key Figures (look through all your notes/take home test)

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): Studied mathematics and astronomy. He wrote many books, but did not publish them due to ridicule from other.s He developed heliocentric conception, arguing that the sun was motionless in the middle of eight planets. His proposal made people begin to question Aristotle.

Tcyho Brahe (1546-1601): Danish nobleman. Built the Duraniborg Castle on an island given to him by King Frederick II. He recorded his observations he saw, and he rejected the Aristotelian Ptolemaic system. He was able to give astronomers the best, most accurate data on the position of celestial bodies. His nose was cut off in a duel and he had a silver one.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Studied theology. He was a mathematician and astrologist. He had a theory that the universe was based on geometrical figures. He rejected Copernicus. Taught mathematics and astronomy in Austria. He gained possession of Brahe’s data after his death and made the 3 laws of planetary motion.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Taught mathematics at the most prestigious schools in Europe. He was the first European to make systematic observations of the heavens by a telescope. He believed in Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. He gave Europeans a better picture of what the universe looks like. His discoveries caused great questions because it defied nearly everything they knew. He never accepted his condemnation. Wrote a book in Italian rather than Latin. He invented the telescope and he discovered the principle of inertia.

Paracelcus is the father of modern medicine, William Harvey discovered blood circulation and arteries, and Antoine Lavorsier is the father of modern chemistry. 

Heliocentric

Developed by Copernicus-the theory that the sun is at the center of the solar system and the eight planets revolve around it.

Rationalism

The idea that reason, logic, and the human mind are the primary sources of knowledge rather than tradition or religion.

Inductive reasoning

A method of thinking where you observe and then form a general rule/conclusion based on the observation.

Royal Societies

Official scientific organizations created by kings and governments to support scientific research. They were centers for experimentation, discussion, innovation, and the sharing of new discoveries.

Scientific methods

A systematic process for discovering truth through observation, experimentation, and evidence. It replaced the reliance on ancient traditions and the church.

Science and religion; what changed?

People before the Scientific Revolution would rely on the teachings of the church for their scientific information. Most people accepted this as the truth and did not question it. Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton proved otherwise which forced people to start to question the church.

Know the scientific figures

Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Copernicus, etc.

Key Figures of the time (look through notes/ take home test) 

Montesquieu (1689-1755): Came from French nobility, and he studied law and had a classical education. He criticized the catholic church and French monarchy. He wrote of 3 kinds of main governments in his work. His principles were worked into the United State’s constitution by American Philosophes.

Voltaire (1694-1778): He was the greatest figure of the Enlightenment. He had a classical education from Jesuit schools. He collaborated on a book with his mistress while being exiled.  He was exiled to France’s eastern border. He became very wealthy. He was known for his criticism of traditional religion.

Diderot (1713-1784): He was the son of a craftsman. He condemned christianity. He was a part of the crusade against old French society. He was a freelance writer. He wrote a 28 volume encyclopedia.

Adam Smith (1723-1790): He believed that gold and silver could not measure wealth. He believed that labor did. He also believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters. He created 3 basic principles of economies. He condemned mercantilism. He and the physiocrats laid the foundation for economic liberalism.

Rousseau (1712-1778): Criticized the works of his predecessors. He tried to unite individual liberty and government authority. He believed that education should aid children’s natural instincts. Believed in a balance between heart/mind and sentiment. He was a leader in the intellectual movement, romanticism.

Wesley (1738-1791): Anglican minister. Emphasized personal faith, small-group Bible study, emotional religious experience, moral living, and preaching outside traditional church buildings. The founding methodist movement started a religious revival in Britain and America. Promoted education, charity, and social reform. He expanded christianity.

Deism

The belief that God created the universe, set it in motion, and it does not interfere with how it runs.

Philosophes

Philosophes (1724-1804): Intellectuals of the Enlightenment time period. Literary people, journalists, professors, economists, statesmen, political scientists, and social reformers. Most leaders of the period were French which caused France to gain power. They found a way to avoid state censorship.

Rocco

(1730s): Emphasized grace and gentle action. Originated from soirees of intellectuals and aristocrats held by French nobles after Louis XIV in 1715. Influenced decoration and architecture throughout Europe. Influenced many artists of the time.

Neoclassicism

(18th century): The neoclassic artists wanted to replicate the simplicity and dignity of the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome. It was a revival of classical art. It promoted concepts of timeless beauty, liberty, and justice.

Pietism

(17th-18th centuries): Religious movement within Lutheran Protestantism that emphasized personal devotion, emotional faith, inner spiritual experience, living a moral Christ-centered life.

Methodist movement

Protestant revival movement founded by John Wesley, Charles Wesley, and George Whitefield, and it began with the Church of England but eventually became its own christian denomination-Methodism. It emphasized personal faith, emotional conversion, moral living, and helping the poor.

Taverns and Salons

Taverns: People gathered and drank alcohol, ate meals, socialized, exchanged news, and held meetings. They were centers of communication and helped spread enlightenment ideas.

Salons: Elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy. Guests would come to discuss intellectual topics. Women hosted salons in order to sway powerful men’s perspectives. Salons united government officials, aristocrats, artists, writers, and the wealthy bourgeoisie. The French Revolution caused salons to decline. They promoted conversation between upper-class men and women.

Social, political, and economic new ideas

Natural Rights: Every person is born with the same natural rights (John Locke)

Religious tolerance: Acceptance of multiple faiths. Less reliance on the church for truths (Deism and secularism).

Individualism: The idea that each person should think for themselves, and education became more important.

Social contract: The government exists because people agree to it. If it fails, people can change it. (Locke, Rousseau, Hobbes).

Separation of Powers: The government divided into branches to prevent tyranny. (Montesquieu).

Popular Sovereignty: Power comes from the people not the king.

Constitutionalism: Written laws limit government power, and it later influenced the U.S. Constitution.

Capitalism and Free Markets: Prices were set by supply and demand, people were free to own property, trade, and start businesses. (Adam Smith).

Laissez-faire: The government should not heavily interfere in the economy. No mercantilism, no over taxation led to more economic freedom.

Division of labor: breaking work into smaller tasks to increase efficiency and productivity. Influenced the Industrial Revolution.

How and Why enlightenment started

The enlightenment began in Europe and it developed as thinkers were starting to apply reason, science, and logic to all areas of life. The Scientific Revolution showed the world that it follows natural laws that humans can understand. The printing press spread books, pamphlets, and ideas more widely. Travel, trade, and exploration exposed Europeans to new cultures and ways of thinking. The enlightenment happened because it was a reaction to the past. It went against the medieval belief that you should rely on religion and tradition for truth. Absolute monarchies limited personal freedoms, and people questioned authority and wanted reason over blind faith.

Know the enlightenment thinkers

John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rosseau, Adam Smith, Mary Wollstonecraft, Denis Diderot, Thomas Hobbes, etc.

Enlightened absolutism

Enlightened Absolutism (Enlightened Despotism) – monarchs who ruled by enlightened principles.

Frederick II - Prussia 

Catherine the Great - Russia

Joseph II - Austria

Catherine the Great

She read Enlightenment works and corresponded with philosophes, she attempted legal reforms and discussed ending serfdom. She expanded education, supported culture and the arts, and reorganized the government. She strengthened serfdom and this gave more power to the nobles which abandoned major reforms.

Joseph II

He was the most radical Enlightened absolutist. He abolished serfdom, increased religious toleration, and reduced the churches power. He introduced legal reforms and attempted to centralize administration. His reforms were unpopular.

Frederick II

He used many Enlightenment ideas like legal reforms, religious toleration, and limited freedom of speech and press. He modernized agriculture and encouraged education but he remained an absolutist. He kept strict control over the Bureaucracy and army and refused to free the serfs.

Role in society…changes in women's view? education, crime and punishment, literature, religion, class system (roles)

Philosophes believed only absolute monarchs swayed by enlightenment principles could reform society. Males thought they were superior to women. They thought a woman’s only purpose in life was to bear children and be subservient to men. Some thinkers, like Diderot, thought that men and women are similar and should be equal. Many women and some men advocated for women’s rights. Mary Wollstonecraft was the founder of modern European feminism. Most European states had a hierarchy of courts to deal with crimes. The death penalty was still commonly used. Many people were tortured and unfairly executed. There was a 3 tiered class system.

Agricultural Revolution

A period of significant changes in farming practices that allowed humans to produce more food, support larger populations, and lay the foundation for modern society. Crop rotation systems came to be, selective breeding, and use of new farming tools.

Maria Theresa

She centralized and strengthened the Hapsburg state after losing Silesia to Prussia. She improved tax collection and reorganized the government. She limited the noble’s power, improved conditions for peasants, and expanded the army. She made the empire more unified and efficient.

Seven Years War

Britain and France had rivalries over colonial territories like North America and India. There was tension between Prussia and Austria after Frederick the Great took Silesia. There were multiple shifting alliances. The result of this was Britain becoming the world’s leading colonial power, Prussia emerging as a major European power. And France lost a majority of its overseas empire.Major struggle among the five great powers in Europe which led to a worldwide conflict. The diplomatic revolution of 1756 led to war with 3 major areas of conflict.