Karyotype: an organized representation of the chromosomes within a cell

Diploid: Each type of chromosome is a member of a pair and has two sets of chromosomes.

Most eukaryotic species are diploid or have a phase in their life cycle.

The physical location on a gene or position of a genes on a chromosome is called its locus or loci for plural.

Chromatids: following chromosomal replication in eukaryotes, the two copies that remain attached to each other in the form of sister chromatids.

Sister Chromatids: pairs of replicated chromosomes that are attached to each other at the centromere and are genetically identical. Also known as dyad.

Centromere: a segment of a eukaryotic chromosome that provides an attachment site for kinetochore or where the sister chromatids attach and join.

Kinetochore: protein complex bound to a centromere of a chromosome during meiosis and mitosis.

Each member of a homologous pair of chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids.

Mitosis is subdivided into phases as follows: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Mitosis and cytokinesis results in the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells having the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell.

Meiosis: the type of cell division that is responsible for the production of gametes in eukaryotes.

Meiosis involves two successive divisions, while mitosis involves only one.

This diagram shows a pair of sister chromatids.

Synapsis: occurs at the beginning of prophase in meiosis, and is the event in which homologous chromosomes recognize each other and then align themselves along their entire length.

Chiasma (chiasmata): site where crossing over such as the physical exchange of pieces occurs between homologous chromosomes during prophase of meiosis I.

Chiasmata refers to the connections that result from crossing over.

Prior to meiosis, the chromosomes are replicated in S(synthesis) phase to produce pairs of sister chromatids.

Which of the following best describes the outcome of mitosis and cytokinesis in human somatic cells? 2n -> 2n

Birds have switched male and female sex determination mechanisms, ZW for male, ZZ for female

During meiosis, crossing over refers to the physical exchange of pieces between NON-SISTER chromatids of HOMOLOGOUS chromosomes.

Starting material found in meiosis II is 23 dyads.

Bees use the haplodiploid system

Crickets use the X-0 system

Pea pod color, flower color and plant height are all examples that mendel studied of genes

Allele: an alternative form of a specific gene

Homozygous: TT, tt, AAbbCCdd

Heterozygous: Tt

Recessive: a trait that is masked by another trait but reappears in subsequent generations

Gene: term used to describe the basic unit of heredity that influences an organisms traits is

Genotype: the genetic composition of an individual, combination of alleles

Phenotype: refers to observable traits of an organism

X-linked genes: genes that are located within the X chromosome

Mendels Law of segregation: homologous pairing and separation of chromosomes during meiosis

Mendels Law of independent Assortment: consistent with the independent alignment of different homologous pairs along the metaphase I plate

Probability: the chance that an outcome will occur in the future

O = observed data in each category

E = expected data in each category based on the experiments

Greek E = sum of the calculation in each category

1. Propose a hypothesis

2. Calculate

3. Apply the chi square formula

4. Interpret using chi square tablet

The chi square value of a given analysis is 2. If the degrees of freedom in the analysis was 1, would the null hypothesis be rejected?

NO, Because 2.0 < 3.841, there is a high probability that the observed deviations are due to random chance alone.

Loss of function allele: an allele of a gene that codes an RNA or protein that is nonfunctional or compromised in function, typically recessive

Recessive mutant allele: leads to a decrease in the production of a functional protein

Gain of function mutation: The product of the dominant mutant allele is expressed in cells where it is not normally active, leading to a change in phenotype.

Dominant-negative mutation: The product of the dominant mutant allele interacts with the product of the normal allele causing an altered phenotype.

Haploinsufficiency: The dominant mutant allele loses its function so that a heterozygous individual shows an abnormal phenotype or disease phenotype.

Dominant mutant alleles are most commonly cause by: gain of function mutations, dominant negative mutations, or haploinsufficiency.

Chi square test can be used to test a hypothesis

Incomplete penetrance: results in a pattern of inheritance in which an allele that is expected to cause a particular phenotype does not always do so.

Heterozygote advantage (overdominance): the phenomenon in which a heterozygote has greater reproductive success compared with either of the corresponding homozygotes

Incomplete dominance: when a heterozygous individual that has a phenotype that is intermediate between the phenotype of the dominant and recessive homozygotes

Codominance: phenomenon in which two alleles are both expressed in the heterozygous individual, expresses the phenotypes of both homozygotes

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