PSYA01 Final Review

applied practice

the actual application of discovered techniques to solve specific practical problems

applied psychology

the use of psychological principals to solve practical problems, typically by influencing behaviour or changing the environment to match existing behaviour

applied research

research done on an effort to discover a new or more effective way to solve a specific practical problem

basic research

work done by psychologists to understand the fundamental principals of behaviour and mind

behaviour

any observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and more that can be repeated, measured, and affected by a situation to produce or remove some outcome. can also refer to biological activity, including actions on the cellular level

behaviourism

an approach to psychology that suggests observable behaviour should be the only topic of study, ignoring conscious experience

biological determinism

the view that all human behaviour is controlled by genetic and biological influences

clinical psychology

a form of applied psychology that focuses on identifying, preventing, and reliving distress or dysfunction that is psychological in origin

counseling psychologist

psychologists who focus on helping people deal with ongoing situations, or on the adjustment from one situation to another

culture

a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, and customs belonging to a specific group or community

dualism

the philosophical position that the mind and body are entirely separate from one another

eclectic approach

an approach to clinical psychology that uses different therapeutic techniques based on their effectiveness for the current situation

empiricism

the view that knowledge arises directly from experience

evolutionary psychology

the study of psychology from an evolutionary perspective, it proposes that many mental processes have developed in response to natural selection to solve adaptive problems

feminist psychology

an approach to psychology that is critical of cultural influences on gender and fender differences in behaviour

functional explanations

a kind of proximate explanation that seeks to identify a specific problem as the cause of a trait, behaviour, or mental process

functionalism

an early movement in psychology whose proponents believed that an understanding of behaviour or process' functions was critical to understanding its operation

humanistic psychology

an approach to psychology that emphasizes the ability of humans to make their own choices and realize their own potential

intersectional approach

an approach to studying cultural influences that emphasizes examining how multiple social identities intersect at the level of the individual person to alter their experience

levels of explanation

the acknowledgment that different explanations for a phenomenon can complement one another

mind

the contents of conscious experience, including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions

nativism

the view that some forms of knowledge are inborn, or innate

natural selection

the principle that traits which contribute to improvements in survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed down to later generations

phrenology

the pseudoscientific study of the shape of the human skull in an attempt to associate brain areas with specific characteristics, thoughts, or abilities

positive psychology

an outgrowth of humanistic psychology, positive psychology studies specific virtues of the human experience, including topics of happiness, trust, charity, and gratitude

process-oriented explanations

a kind of proximate explanation that focuses on how a specific mental or physical process directly explains a trait or behavior

proximate explanations

explanations that seek to describe an immediate cause of a trait, behaviour, or mental process

a medical doctor who is trained to assess and treat psychological disorders. can often prescribe and manage psychiatric medications

psychoanalysis

a form of psychotherapy coined by Sigmund Freud that seeks to help clients gain more insight into their conscious thoughts, behaviours, and motivations

psychology

the scientific study of both behaviour and mind

structuralism

the first movement in the history of psychology, which focused on breaking down immediate conscious experience (such as sensations and feelings) into their constituent parts

systematic introspection

one of the first strategies to make inferences about the contents of the mind, it was an effort to standardize the way people reported their own experiences

translational research

research that attempts to take basic findings and turn them into solutions for practical problems

ultimate explanations

explanations that seek to describe the reasons why a trait, behavior, or mental process exists by appealing to its role in the process of evolution

ablation

a medical procedure to remove or otherwise destroy tissue

acquiescent response bias

the tendency for participants to agree or respond "yes" to all questions regardless of their actual opinions

assent

a persons affirmative permission to take part in a research study. in cases of decisional impairment, assent must be obtained in addition to informed consent

beneficence

a concept of research ethics whereby researchers strive to do 'good' in a research study

bias

an unfair or unequal representation of a person or thing

case study

an in-depth analysis of an unique circumstance or individual

confederate

a person who is acting as a participant, but in reality, is another researcher

confounding variable

other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient

correlation

a measure (denoted as are) that captures the direction and strength of a relationship between variables

correlation coefficient

a numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variable (denoted as r)

data

facts or information collected, examined, and considered for decision-making processes

debriefing

information provided to participants about what the researcher was investigating and how their participation will contribute to the research question

deception

the act of withholding information about the purpose and procedures of the study during the informed consent process

decisional impairment

instances that diminish a potential participants capacity to provide informed consent

descriptive methods

any means to capture, record, or otherwise, describe a group. these methods are concerned with identifying 'what is rather than 'why it is

ecological validity

the extent to which research findings in the lab can be generalized to the real world

eligibility criteria

the combination of inclusion and exclusion criteria to create a set of characteristics shared by all participants to ensure that those participating will meaningfully help to address the research question

entorhinal cortex

a part of the cerebral cortex found on the ventral part of the temporal lobes and known to play a role in heavier and memory

episodic memory

memories whose contents pertain to specific events ("episodes"

exclusion criteria

an attribute of a person that would prevent them from participating in a research study

fidelity

the ethical principle of developing trusting relationships between researches and participants

field experiments

an experiment that takes place in 'real-world' settings in which a researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behaviour under observation

hippocampus

a part of the cerebral cortex known to play a role in the transference of certain types of memories into longterm memory stores

hypothesis

an educated prediction about the outcome of an experience

illusory superiority

the tendency to describe our own behaviour as better than average

inclusion criterion

an attribute of participants that is necessary to be a part of a research study

informed consent

the process by which research participants learn about and understand the purpose, benefits, and potential risks of participating in a research study

institutional review board (IRB)

a committee of independent people who review and asses whether a research project will be carried out in a way that is consistent with general ethical principles

integrity

an ethical principle that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology

justice

an ethical principle in research whereby those people who participate in the research process should also be the same people who stand to benefit from the research outcomes

line of best fit

a straight line on a scatterplot showing the general relationship of data points

maleficence

the act of doing harm

naturalistic observation

observation of behaviour as it happens, without an attempt to manipulate or control the subjects' natural environment

negative correlation

variables that change in the opposite direction. an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other

participant observation

a research method in which a researcher becomes part of the group under investigation

population

all members of a group

positive correlation

when variables change in the same direction; as one variable increases, the other variable increases, or as one decreases so does the other

procedural memories

memories who contents pertain to how something is done, such as the motor skills involved in walking and riding a bicycle

rationalism

the belief or theory that reason is the key source of knowledge

replication

a term referring to a 'do-over' of a study using the same methods, but different subjects and investigators

research ethics

a set of principals or standards of behaviour for psychologists to follow in research

response bias

the tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in systemic ways that are otherwise inaccurate

sample

a subset (or portion) of a population

sampling error

a sample that deviates from a true representation of a population

scatter plot

a type of graph that has variables on either axis and provides a visual representation of relationships between variables

scientific method

a six-step method of querying knowledge and methodologically answering questions

scientific theories

rational explanations to describe and predict future behaviour

semantic memories

memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience

situational vulnerability

when the freedom of 'choice' to participate in research is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source

socially desirable bias

participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others

survey

a method using questions to collect information on how people think or act

vulnerable populations

any group of individuals who may not be able to provide free and informed consent to participate in research

volunteer bias

a bias whereby only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research

wording effects

the influence of language, or wording, on people's responses to survey questions

zero correlation

two variables that exhibit no apparent relationship

action potential

the electrical impulse, or activation energy, that sends a message through a neuron

afferents

axons that carry signals to the central nervous system

agonists

chemicals that come from outside the body, and mimic or enhance in some way the actions of neurotransmitters. they can either be more effective, the same, or less effective than the normal neurotransmitter produced in the nervous system

amygdala

a network of neurons and gila (nuclei) that becomes more active when we learn to be more fearful and activate our fear response

antagonist

a chemical that comes from outside of the body to shut off a receptor

association cortex

parts of the neocortex that merge information from primary areas like the visual and auditory cortex. these circuits help us make sense of what we take in

astrocytes

gilal (helper) cells that help get nutrition to neurons and maintain the balance of charged particles (ions) inside and outside of the neuron

autonomic

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the more autonomic functions of the body

axon

a part of the neuron's cell membrane that delivers messages to other neurons and body parts

axon hillock

the intersection between the soma and the axon. this is where the axon begins

axon terminal

this is the part of the axon that releases the neurotransmitter. once the action potential gets to the axon terminal, it triggers the releaser of the neurotransmitter