Behavioral Psych & Therapy - Exam 3

Lectures 15-19??

Reinforcement Contingency

• Antecedent (A)

• Behavior (B)

• Consequence (C)

Antecedent (A) in Reinforcement Contingency

• Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

• Establishing Operation (EO)

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

• Evokes behavior

• Signals the availability of the reinforcer

Establishing Operation (EO)

• Evokes behavior

• Momentarily increases the value of the reinforcer

Consequence (C) in Reinforcement Contingency

Reinforcer

• Positive

• Negative

Reinforcer

Increases the future probability of the behavior under similar conditions

CONTEXT MATTERS

The effects of reinforcement & extinction are relatively situation specific

Stimulus

Anything that affects a person’s behavior

Discrimination Training

A procedure where a behavior is

• Reinforced in the presence of one stimulus (SD)

• Extinguished in the presence of another stimulus (S∆)

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

A stimulus that is present only if reinforcement will occur for that behavior

IOW the stimulus that is correlated with reinforcement

Stimulus Delta (S∆)

A stimulus that is present only if extinction will occur for a behavior

IOW the stimulus that is correlated with withholding of the reinforcement

Do you need both SD & S∆?

YES

Components of a Discrimination Training Procedure

• Antecedent (A)

• Behavior (B)

• Consequence (C)

Antecedent (A) in Discrimination Training

• Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

• S-Delta (S∆)

Consequence (C) in Discrimination Training

• SD behavior is reinforced

• S∆ behavior is extinguished

Discriminated Behavior

A behavior that is

• More likely to occur in the presence of the SD

• Less likely to occur in the presence of the S∆

Stimulus Control

Increased probability of a discriminated behavior in the presence of SD

Discrimination Training Example

A → B → C

Friends → Tell dirty jokes → Laughter

Parents → Tell dirty jokes → No laughs

You are more likely to tell dirty jokes to your friends & not your parents

Shaping

The development of a new operant behavior by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behavior & the extinction of earlier approximations of that behavior until the new behavior occurs

Differentiation vs. Discrimination

• 1 or 2 stimulus

• 1 or 2 response classes

Dimensions of Behavior that can be Shaped

• Topography (form)

• Frequency

• Duration

• Latency

• Intensity (force)

Shaping Steps

• Specify the target behavior

• Choose a starting behavior

• Move through successive approximations

Choosing a Starting Behavior

Should be a behavior already in learner’s repertoire & most closely resembles ???

Move Through Successive Approximations

• Reinforce an approximation at least several times (but not to many steps before preceding to the next step)

• Avoid moving to a new approximation until previous one is mastered

• If you “lose” a behavior because you are moving too fast or taking too large a step, return to an earlier approximation

• Reinforce behavior immediately

Behavior Chain

A consistent sequence of stimuli & responses that occur closely to each other in time

Behavior Chain Instagram Example

Posting on Instagram

• Tap on IG app

• Click on “+” sign

• Click on “post”

• Click on the photo desired

• Click on “done”

Behavior Chain Washing Hands Example

Washing hands

• Walking to the sink

• Turn on the water

• Rinse hands

• Apply soap

• Rinse hands

• Turn off the water

• Dry hands

Behavior Chain Responses

• Each response is a discriminative stimulus (SD) for the next response

• Each response is a conditioned reinforcer for the previous response

Steps Involved in Behavior Chaining

• Create a task analysis with all the responses in the chain clearly defined

  • Observe a competent model

  • Ask an expert

  • Perform it yourself

  • Revise if necessary

    • Overestimate vs. Underestimate

• Identify an effective reinforcer

  • Natural vs. Arbitrary

• Choose a chaining technique

  • Forward vs. Backward vs. Total task

Task Analysis

List of a sequence of smaller steps in a behavior chain

Forward Chaining

• A chaining procedure in which you teach the initial step of the chain first & gradually add the subsequent steps

• Reinforcement is delivered following completion of the “currently require” step

• Tell, show, help first step → reinforce → help with rest of steps

Backward Chaining

• A chaining procedure in which you teach the terminal step in the chain first & gradually add the earlier steps

• Reinforcement is always delivered following completion of the terminal step

• YOU ARE NOT TEACHING THE PERSON TO DO THE SKILL BACKWARD!!

Differentiation vs. Discrimination:

1 stimulus & 1 response class

• No differentiation

• No discrimination

Differentiation vs. Discrimination:

1 stimulus & 2 response classes

Response differentiation

Differentiation vs. Discrimination:

2 stimulus & 1 response class

Stimulus Discrimination

Differentiation vs. Discrimination:

2 stimulus & 2 response classes

Combined differentiation & discrimination

Examples of good stimulus control

• Reading

  • Verbal response under control of textual stimuli

• Social interactions

  • Ex: when to hug someone

• Verbal interactions

  • Ex: responding to questions

• Driving

  • Ex: road signs, traffic lights, etc.

• Athletic performance

  • Ex: off sides or false starts

Simultaneous Discrimination

The concurrent presentation of multiple stimuli

(presented at same time)

Successive Discrimination

The successive presentation of stimuli

(presented one after another)

Faulty Stimulus Control

Stimuli consists of different elements so it may be difficult to control which element(s) control responding

Examples of Inadvertent Cues When Teaching Discrimination

• Eye gaze

  • Looking at the correct target stimulus

• Physical movements

  • Inadvertently blocking incorrect stimulus

• Stimuli placement

  • Always placing correct target stimulus on one side, or setting down the correct target stimulus first

Stimulus Discrimination

• Responding differently to 2 or more stimuli

• Tight degree of stimulus control

• Precise stimulus control

Stimulus Generalization

• Responding similarly to 2 or more stimuli

• Loose degree of stimuli control

• Imprecise stimulus control

Stimulus Control

Increased probability of a discriminated behavior in the presence of S∆

Discrimination vs. Generalization

• Essentially opposite processes

• As discrimination increases → generalization decreases

• As discrimination decreases → generalization increases

Stimulus Class

• A set of related stimuli

• Common effect on behavior

• Evoke the same response class

Concept Formation

• Complex stimulus control that results in

  • Generalization within a class of stimuli

  • Discrimination between classes of stimuli

• Reinforce a common element

Can pigeons learn concepts?

YES

Establishing NEW Behavior

• Some behaviors do not yet exist in an individual’s repertoire

• Don’t know how to do it yet

Behavior: Topography (form)

• Physical movements involved in the behavior

• Ex: extent of follow through on a tennis serve

Behavior: Frequency

• Number of instances of the behavior in a given time

• Ex: number of dishes washed in 5 mins

Behavior: Duration

• Continuous amount of time that the behavior lasts

• Ex: length of time treading water

Behavior Latency

• Time between the controlling stimulus & the behavior

• Ex: time between the question “what time is it?” & the response of looking at your watch

Behavior Intensity (force)

• Amount of energy expended on the behavior

• Ex: force of a punch in boxing

What Kind of Procedure is Shaping

• Consequence-based

• No explicit instruction

Are Both Reinforcement & Extinction Involved in Shaping?

YES

• Reinforcing the closer approximation

• Extinguishing the previous approximation

When is Shaping Useful?

When

• Response is unlikely to occur

• Response is not responsive to instructions or modeling

Shaping: Specify the Target Behavior

• Operationally define the target behavior

• Specify the dimension

• Conditions in which behavior should occur

Shaping: Choose a Starting Behavior

Starting behavior should be a behavior already in learner’s repertoire & most closely resembles the final target behavior

Shaping: Move Through Successive Approximations

• Reinforce an approximation at least several times (but not too many steps) before proceeding to the next step

• Avoid moving to new approximation until previous one is mastered

• If you “lose” a behavior because you are moving too fast or taking too large a step, return to an earlier approximation

• Reinforce behavior immediately

Inadvertent Cues

Unintentional signals or behaviors that influence someone's actions, thoughts, or perceptions without their conscious awareness

Total Task Chaining

• The total task is targeted as a single unit

• All steps are taught on each trial

• Typically involves either guidance or prompting through each step of the task analysis

Chaining Prompts

• Verbal, model, physical guidance

  • Tell, show, help

• Consider pictoral prompts

• Consider written task analysis

Outline for All 3 Major Chaining Methods

Do a task analysis

Outline for Total-Task Presentation

• The learner attempt every step on each trial, so that all unmastered steps are taught concurrently (around the same time)

• The instructor provides prompts & praise for all unmastered steps

• A reinforcer is presented following the last step

• Training continues in this way until all steps are mastered

Outline for Forward Chaining

• Starting with the first one, the step must be mastered before proceeding to the next one

• The instructor provides prompts & a reinforcer for the step that is being taught

• On each trial, all previously mastered steps are required

• In this way, one step is learned at a time, progressing forward to the last step

Outline for Backward Chaining

• Starting with the last step, it must be mastered before proceeding to the next-to-last step

• The instructor provides prompts for the step that is being taught

• On each trial, all previously mastered steps are required, & the last step is followed by a reinforcer

• In this way, one step is learned at a time, progressing backward to the first step

Similarities between Forward & Backward Chaining

• Both involve task analysis

• Both involve teaching components individually

Differences Between Forward & Backward Chaining

• Backward Chaining

  • Teaches last step first

  • Reinforcement is always in the “natural location”

• Forward Chaining

  • Maintains natural sequence of tasks (first step first)

  • Reinforcement location varies dependent upon current requirements

Differential Reinforcement

• Reinforcing one response class

  • When dealing with reducing problem behavior, this involves

    • Reinforcing a behavior other than problem behavior

    • Reinforcing a reduced rate of problem behavior

• Withholding reinforcement for another

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)

• Reinforce a behavior that cannot occur with problem behavior

  • Another behavior that happens at the same time that is also okay

• Withhold reinforcement for instances of problem behavior

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)

• Reinforce occurrences of desirable alternative to problem behavior but that is not necessarily incompatible

• Reinforcement is withheld for problem behavior

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)

• “Reverse Psychology Method”

• Deliver reinforcer whenever the problem behavior has not occurred for a specific time

• “Reinforcement for not responding'“

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

Use to decrease the frequency of the occurrence of a behavior, but not eliminate it all together

Types of Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL’s)

• Full session DRL

• Interval DRL

• Variable DRL

Full Session DRL

Reinforcement is delivered at the end of session if, during the entire session, the target behavior occurred equal to or fewer times than a predetermined criterion

Interval DRL

• Divide the total session into a series of equal intervals of time

• Provide reinforcement at the end of each interval in which the number of occurrences of target behavior is equal to or below predetermined criterion

• More opportunities for reinforcement

Spaced-Responding DRL

• Deliver reinforcer following an occurrence of a behavior that is separated by at least a minimum amount of time from a previous behavior

• In other words

  • Reinforcement is contingent on increasingly longer Inter-Response Times (IRT’s)

• “Works pretty well”

Limitations of DRL

DRL is slow & does not reduce a behavior quickly

Guidelines for Using DRL

Choose most appropriate DRL procedure

• Spaced responding is the only DRL procedure that delivers reinforcement immediately following response & maintains lower rates

• Spaced responding provides higher rates of reinforcement

Behavior Skills Training

• 1st step of differential reinforcement

• Includes

  • Instruction (tell)

  • Modeling (show)

  • Role Play (help)

  • Feedback

    • Encouragement NOT praise

Guidelines for Implementing Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible/Alternative Behavior (DRI/DRA)

• Select incompatible/alternative behavior

  • Already exists in repertoire

    • Already know how to do it

  • Requires equal or less effort than problem behavior

    • Same or less difficult than problem behavior

  • Emitted at a rate that provides sufficient opportunities for reinforcement

    • Enough situations for behavior to stick

  • Likely to be reinforced in natural reinforced

    • Reinforcement can occur on its own in life

Forms of Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)

• Fixed-Interval DRO (FI-DRO)

• Variable-Interval DRO (VI-DRO)

• Fixed-Momentary DRO (FM-DRO)

• Variable-Momentary DRO (VM-DRO)

Fixed-Interval DRO (FI-DRO)

• Omission requirement is applied at the end of successive time intervals of equal duration

• Application

  • Establish interval

  • Deliver reinforcement at end of interval if problem

  • If problem behavior occurs, reset interval

Variable-Interval DRO (VI-DRO)

• Omission requirement is applied at the end of successive time intervals of variable & unpredictable durations

• Applications

  • Establish variable interval schedule

  • Deliver reinforcement at end of interval if problem behavior didn’t occur during the interval

  • If problem behavior occurs, reset individual

Fixed-Momentary DRO (FM-DRO) & Variable-Momentary (VM-DRO)

• Omission requirement is applied only at the end of successive time intervals of fixed or variable durations

  • Contingency in place during interval

• Application

  • Establish interval

  • Deliver reinforcement at end of interval if problem behavior didn’t occur at end of interval

What Type of Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO) to use?

• Interval more widely used than momentary

• Interval more effective for suppressing problem behavior

• Momentary may be most useful for maintaining reduced levels of problem

Guidelines for Using DRO

• Gradually increase the DRO interval

  • 3 options

    • Increase by constant duration of time

    • Increase intervals proportionately

    • Increase based on learner’s performance

• Extend to other settings & times of day

• Combine with other procedures

Autism & Problem Behavior

• Meltdowns

• Aggression

• Self-injury

Assumption of Behavior Analysis

Severe problem behavior is understood as learned behavior influenced by its outcomes & context

Behavioral Intervention

• Can effectively reduce problem behavior in persons with Dissociative Disorder (DD) & Autism

• Larger reductions in problem behavior especially when a functional assessment was conducted

Challenging Behavior

• Behavior that interferes with learning

• Behavior potentially harmful to individuals or others

Functional Assessment Contrasted to Other Behavioral/Psychological Assessment

• Most psychological assessment is norm-referenced & behavior is viewed as symptomatic of underlying dysfunction

• By contrast, a functionally assessment is idiographic & attempts to identify historical variables influencing current behavior

Why Do Challenging Behaviors Occur?

• Access to social interaction or materials

  • Access to attention (social)

  • Access to tangible (social)

• Escape from aversive situations

  • Escape (social)

• Access to non-socially mediated consequences

  • Sensory (automatic)

• A combination of these contingencies

SEAT

Sensory

Escape

Attention

Tangible

Assessment

• Focuses on understanding why problem behavior occurs

• Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA)

Intervention

• Informed by assessment

• Behavior reduction & skill acquisition

• Reactive

Prevention

• Early detection & mitigation of risks

• Preemptive teaching of relevant skills

• Proactive

What is a Functional Assessment of Problem Behavior?

• Process by which the variables influencing problem behavior are identified

  • Ex: identify antecedents & consequences maintaining behavior

What are the Types of Functional Assessments?

• Indirect Functional Assessment

• Descriptive Assessments

• Functional Analysis

Indirect Functional Assessment

• No direct observation of any problem behavior

• Relies on report of others