Organizational behaviour - Chapter 8: Power and politics

Power

The capacity party one has to influence another, so that said other party acts in accordance with the wishes of the party with influence

Power (con’t)

It may not always be imposed

Dependence

One party’s relationship to another party when the other party has something they require

e.g. A student having their college journey funded by their parents; the student may recognize their parents holding power over them

Power and discomfort

It could be in part due to how people perceive those in power

e.g. Through body gestures, personality traits, etc

The five bases of formal power

1. Coercive

2. Reward

3. Legitimate

4. Personal

5. Informational

Coercive power

A power base dependent on fear of the negative results of failing to comply

e.g. Party 1 being able to suspend or fire Party 2 at the organizational level

Reward power

When parties comply with the wishes of another party if doing so will yield positive benefits

Reward power (con’t)

Someone who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over them.

Legitimate power

Power that one receives as a result of their position within a firm’s formal hierarchy

Personal power

Power which comes from one’s unique traits

Informational power

One party holds crucial information another party needs, and thus can leverage said information for power

The two bases of personal power

1. Expert

2. Referent

Expert power

Influence based on expertise, special skills, or knowledge

Referent power

Influence that’s based on how much a person is liked

e.g.  If I like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you.

Commitment

When one is enthusiastic about the request and shows initiative and persistence in carrying it out

Commitment (con’t)

Expert and referent power lead to this

Compliance

When one goes along with the request grudgingly, puts in minimal effort, and takes little initiative in carrying out the request.

Compliance (con’t)

Reward and coercive power lead to this

Resistance

When one is opposed to the request and tries to avoid it with tactics like refusing, stalling, or arguing about it

What creates dependence?

The possession of something important scarce in numbers, and with little substitutes

Pressure

When party 1 uses demands, threats, or intimidation to convince party 2 to comply or support them

Upward appeals

Party 1 seeks to persuade Party 2 that the request is approved by higher management

Upward appeals (con’t)

Party 1 appeals to higher management for assistance in gaining person B's compliance with the request

Legitimating 

Party 1 seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request by claiming the authority or right to make it

Legitimating (con’t)

Party 1 verifies the request is consistent with organizational policies, rules, practices, etc

Coalition 

Party 1 seeks the aid of others to persuade Party 2 to do something

Coalition (con’t)

Party 1 uses the support of others as an argument for Party 2 to also agree.

Personal Appeal 

Party 1 appeals to Party 2's feelings of loyalty and friendship toward them before asking Party 2 to do something.

Exchange

Party 1 makes a promise that Party 2 will receive rewards or tangible benefits if they comply with a request or support a proposal

Exchange (con’t)

Party 1 reminds Party 2 of a prior favour to be reciprocated.

Ingratiation

Party 1 seeks to get Party 2 in a good mood or to think favourably of Party 1 before asking Party 2 to do something

Consutlation 

Party 1 seeks Party 2’s participation in making or planning a decision

Inspirational Appeals

Party 1 makes an arousing emotional request or proposal by appealing to Party 2's beliefs

Inspirational Appeals (con’t)

Party 1 increases Party 2's confidence that they can do it.

Rational Persuasion

Party 1 uses facts and logic to persuade Party 2 that a proposal or request is viable and likely to result in success

Influence tactics

Ways how individuals translate power bases into specific action

Influence tactics (con’t)

Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process.

Persuasion usually backfires

Influence tactics (III)

One can increase their chance of success by using two or more tactics together, as long as the choices are compatible.

Influence tactics (IV)

The effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence and audience

Political skill

The ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance their own objectives

Political skill (con’t)

The politically skilled are more effective users of all of the influence tactics, and is much more effective when the stakes are high

Political skill (III)

The politically skilled can exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element of its effectiveness, since being labelled as political is damaging

Why can power corrupt people?

Because it can, it also liberates them to focus inward and thus come to place greater weight on their own aims and interests

Power variables

The toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality

How can power variables be contained?

The corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems through accountability

How can the effects of power be nullified?

The effects of power can be nullified with small acts such as showing gratitude, and considering the saying that those with little power abuse what little they have.

Workplace bullying

Bosses who feel inadequate or overwhelmed are more likely to bully

e.g. Harassing employees, demanding overtime without pay, or excessive work performance

Sexual harassment

Unwanted physical touching, recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the person is not interested, and coercive threats that a person will lose their job if they refuse a sexual proposition

Sexual harassment (con’t)

Is more likely to occur where there are larger power differences

How managers can protect and prevent sexual harassment

• Make sure an active policy defines what constitutes sexual harassment, informs employees that they can be fired for inappropriate behaviour, and establishes procedures for making complaints.

• Reassure employees that they will not encounter retaliation if they issue a complaint.

• Investigate every complaint and inform the legal and human resource departments.

• Make sure that offenders are disciplined or terminated.

• Set up in-house seminars to raise employee awareness of sexual harassment issues.

Empowerment

The freedom and the ability of employees to make decisions and commitments

Empowerment (con’t)

Delegating decision-making within clear a set of boundaries

Empowerment (III)

A process of risk-taking and personal growth

What needs to be done for an employee to be empowered?

They need:

• Access to the information required to make decisions

• Rewards for acting in appropriate and responsible ways

• The authority to make the necessary decisions

Political behaviour

Activities that are outside one's formal role and that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization

Impression management (IM)

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

Conformity

Agreeing with someone else's opinion to gain his or her approval is a form of ingratiation.

Example: A manager tells his boss, "You're absolutely right on your reorganization plan for the western regional office. I couldn't agree with you more.

Favours

Doing something nice for someone to gain that person's approval is a form of ingratiation.

Example: A salesperson says to a prospective client, "I've got two tickets to the theatre tonight that I can't use. Take them. Consider it a thank-you for taking the time to talk with me.

Excuses

Explaining a detrimental event to minimize its apparent severity is a defensive IM technique.

Example: A sales manager says to her boss, “We failed to get the ad in the paper on time, but no one responds to those ads anyway."

Apologies

Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action is a defensive IM technique.

Example: An employee says to his boss, " I'm sorry I made a mistake on the report. Please forgive me."

Self-promotion

Highlighting your best qualities, downplaying your flaws, and calling attention to your achievements is a self-focused IM technique.

Example: A salesperson tells his boss, "Matt worked unsuccessfully for three years trying to get that account. I sewed it up in six weeks. I'm the best closer this company has."

Enhancement

Claiming that something you did is more valuable than most other members of the organization would think is a self-focused IM technique.

Example: A journalist tells his editor, "My work on this celebrity divorce story was really a major boost to our sales" (even though it only made it to page 3 in the entertainment section).

Flattery

Complimenting others on their virtues to make yourself appear perceptive and likable is an assertive IM technique.

Example: A new sales trainee says to her peer, "You handled that client's complaint so tactfully! I could never have handled that as well as you did.”

Exemplification

Doing more than you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hard-working you are; is an assertive IM technique.

Example: An employee sends emails from his work computer when he works late so that his supervisor will know how long he has been working.