unit 4 AP psychology study guide

Attribution Theory

The tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behavior, often crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

Dispositional Attribution

Attributing someone’s behavior to their traits and characteristics, like thinking someone is smart or lazy.

Situational Attribution

Attributing someone’s behavior to environmental factors outside of their control, such as blaming a referee or a difficult test.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining another person's behavior.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that the world is just, and people get what they deserve.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to take credit for successes while attributing failures to external situations.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations about an individual influence behavior toward them, affecting how they behave back.

Central Route of Persuasion

Persuasion that focuses on factual information and logical arguments.

Foot-in-the-Door

A persuasion strategy where a modest request precedes a larger request.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological tension resulting from inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors.

Social Influence

The ways attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped by social influences.

Conformity

The tendency to adopt the behaviors and beliefs of a group.

Normative Social Influence

Influence driven by a desire for approval or to avoid rejection.

Compliance

An act of conforming, often in a submissive manner.

Obedience

Following direct orders from an authority figure.

Norms

Rules governing acceptable behaviors in a group.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort by individuals in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in a group.

Group Polarization

The tendency of groups to make extreme decisions beyond the initial inclinations.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where the desire for harmony results in poor decision-making outcomes.

Prejudice

A learned prejudgment toward people based on their social group membership.

Discrimination

Differential treatment of others, often negative.

Ingroup Bias

Favoring one's own group over other groups.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group, often overgeneralized or inaccurate.

Scapegoat Theory

The tendency to blame an out-group for problems, often fueled by prejudice.

Contact Theory

Reducing tensions between groups by bringing them together to achieve common goals.

Altruism

The selfless concern for the welfare of others.

Bystander Effect

The reduced likelihood of individuals to offer help in emergencies when others are present.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced sense of responsibility in a group, leading to inaction in crises.

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that helping others will elicit help in return.

Proximity

Geographical closeness as a predictor of friendships and relationships.

Self-Disclosure

Sharing intimate details about oneself with others.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that promote cooperation between groups.

Personality

The characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Id

The primal, impulsive part of the mind operating on the pleasure principle.

Superego

The part of the mind that provides standards for judgment and moral guidance.

Ego

The executive part of the mind that mediates between the id and superego.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Denial

Refusing to accept or acknowledge anxiety-provoking information.

Displacement

Redirecting inappropriate feelings toward a less threatening target.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way that is the opposite of one's unacceptable feelings.

Sublimation

Redirecting unwanted impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.

Projective Tests

Personality tests that reveal hidden emotions through ambiguous stimuli responses.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test using ambiguous images to evaluate a person's feelings and interests.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A widely-used projective test with inkblot images to assess inner feelings and thoughts.

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of shared memories and ideas derived from human history.

Self-Concept

The perceptions and beliefs individuals have about themselves.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Total acceptance and support regardless of what a person does.

Self-Esteem

An individual's subjective emotional evaluation of their worth.

Five Factor Model

A model defining personality through five broad factors: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd edition (MMPI-2)

The most commonly used personality test to assess psychological disorders.

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A personality test categorizing individuals into different types for personal insights.

Self-Efficacy

One's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Model of Reciprocal Determinism

The interaction between behavior, internal thoughts, and environmental factors.

Defensive Self-Esteem

Protective measures taken to maintain a positive self-image.

Secure Self-Esteem

A stable and robust sense of self that allows for confidence and acceptance of criticism.

Spotlight Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others notice and evaluate our actions.

James-Lange Theory

The theory that emotions arise from our awareness of physiological reactions.

Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that emotional and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer Theory

The theory that emotion is influenced by physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

Facial Feedback

The influence of facial expressions on emotional experiences.

Drive-Reduction Theory

The idea that physiological needs create arousal that motivates behavior to satisfy them.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.

Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal

The principle that optimal performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal.

Intrinsic Motivation

The drive to do something for inherent satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivation

The drive to do something for external rewards or to avoid punishment.

Overjustification Effect

When external rewards diminish intrinsic motivation.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s model of human needs, prioritized from basic physiological needs to psychological self-fulfillment.

Glucose

The sugar in blood that serves as the primary energy source for body tissues.