Conceptual History Exam Study Guide

Theory of divine right

Theory of divine right

monarchs derive their authority from God and cannot be held accountable for their actions by human means.

Theory of absolute monarchy vs. constitutional monarchy

the monarch holds complete power and governs without limitations, vs , the monarch's power is restricted by a constitution and shared with an elected governing body

Conflict between absolute monarchs of England & the Parliament

kings like James I and Charles I believed in the divine right of kings and ruled without Parliament’s consent. This led to clashes over issues like taxation and royal power. The tension culminated in the English Civil War where Parliament defeated King Charles I, who was later executed. This shifted power towards Parliament, eventually leading to a constitutional monarchy.

Beliefs of James I

the divine right of kings, which meant monarchs were chosen by God and should have absolute power to rule without interference from Parliament. He also supported absolute monarchy and sought religious unity through moderate Protestant policies.

Opposing sides in the English Civil War

fought between the Royalists (Cavaliers), who supported King Charles I and his belief in absolute monarchy, and the Parliamentarians (Roundheads), who wanted to limit the king's power and strengthen Parliament's role in governance. The Parliamentarians, led by figures like Oliver Cromwell, ultimately won, resulting in the execution of Charles I and a brief period without a monarchy.

Role of Oliver Cromwell in English history

led Parliamentarians to victory in the English Civil War against King Charles I. After the war, he played a central role in the execution of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. His rule is marked by strict Puritan policies and military reforms. After his death, the monarchy was restored.

Results of the Glorious Revolution

the overthrow of King James II and the ascension of William of Orange and his wife Mary II to the throne. It significantly limited the power of the monarchy and marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in England. The Bill of Rights (1689) was passed, ensuring parliamentary supremacy over the crown and protecting individual rights, such as freedom from royal interference in law and taxation.

Political changes in England

The monarchy's power was greatly reduced, with William III and Mary II accepting the Bill of Rights (1689), which limited royal authority and affirmed Parliament's supremacy. This established a constitutional monarchy, where the king or queen ruled alongside Parliament, rather than with absolute power. Parliament's role in lawmaking, taxation, and governance was strengthened, marking the shift towards modern democratic principles in England.

Theory of Nicolaus Copernicus

developed the heliocentric theory, which proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe. This challenged the prevailing geocentric model, which placed the Earth at the center. His theory suggested that the Earth and other planets revolved around the Sun, revolutionizing our understanding of the cosmos and laying the groundwork for future scientific discoveries in astronomy.

Theory of Johannes Kepler

laws of planetary motion, which stated that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun, rather than perfect circles. His work built on Copernicus’s heliocentric theory and provided a more accurate description of planetary movement. Kepler’s laws helped advance the understanding of the solar system and laid the foundation for later developments in physics and astronomy, particularly the work of Isaac Newton.

Discoveries of Andreas Vesalius

the study of human anatomy. His most significant work was a detailed and accurate anatomical textbook based on dissections of human bodies, correcting many of the errors in earlier medical texts. He challenged traditional beliefs, particularly those of Galen, by emphasizing direct observation and hands-on study, laying the foundation for modern anatomy and advancing the scientific method in medicine.

Result of the discoveries of Galileo

provided strong evidence for the heliocentric theory and advanced the understanding of the cosmos. He discovered Jupiter’s moons, sunspots, and the phases of Venus, challenging the geocentric model and supporting the idea that planets revolve around the Sun. His work laid the foundation for modern physics and astronomy, though it led to conflict with the Catholic Church, which initially condemned his support of the heliocentric theory.

Legacy of the Scientific Revolution

transformed the way humanity understood the natural world. It laid the groundwork for modern science by promoting empirical observation, experimentation, and the scientific method. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton challenged traditional beliefs and reshaped fields like astronomy, physics, and biology. The revolution not only advanced knowledge but also influenced broader intellectual movements, such as the Enlightenment, fostering a spirit of inquiry, skepticism of authority, and the pursuit of knowledge that continues to shape science and society today.

Theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau

outlined in his work "The Social Contract" (1762), emphasized that legitimate political authority comes from a social contract in which individuals consent to form a community governed by the general will. He believed that people are born free but are often corrupted by society. He argued for direct democracy and the idea that the collective will of the people should guide the laws, prioritizing the common good over individual interests. His ideas influenced modern political thought and democratic movements.

Theory of the Baron de Montesquieu

advocated for the separation of powers within government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. He proposed dividing government into three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial, each with distinct functions and checks on the others. He believed this system would protect liberty and promote justice. His ideas greatly influenced the development of modern political systems, including the Constitution of the United States.

Theory of Adam Smith

developed the theory of classical economics. He argued that economies function best when individuals pursue their own self-interest in a free-market system, driven by competition and minimal government interference. He introduced the idea of the "invisible hand," where the actions of individuals seeking personal gain inadvertently benefit society as a whole. His ideas laid the foundation for modern capitalism, promoting free trade, entrepreneurship, and the division of labor as key to economic prosperity.

Contributions of Voltaire

philosopher known for his contributions to freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. He was a strong critic of absolute monarchy, institutionalized religion, and dogma, advocating for reason, individual rights, and civil liberties. His famous works, such as "Candide", used satire to challenge injustice and expose the flaws in society. His ideas greatly influenced modern political thought, particularly the development of constitutional rights and secular governance.

Result of the actions of Denis Diderot

most significant contribution was his role in creating the Encyclopédie (1751-1772), a comprehensive work that aimed to compile and spread Enlightenment knowledge across various fields, such as science, philosophy, and the arts. The Encyclopédie challenged traditional authority, particularly religious and political institutions, by promoting rational thought, secularism, and intellectual freedom. His work helped spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe, influencing the French Revolution and shaping modern thinking on education, science, and individual rights.

Legacy of the Enlightenment

it emphasized reason, individual rights, and the importance of education and scientific inquiry. Enlightenment thinkers, such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Diderot, challenged traditional authority, promoting ideas of democracy, secularism, and human rights. These ideas influenced major political and social changes, including the American Revolution and the French Revolution, and helped shape modern concepts of freedom of speech, separation of powers, and equality. The Enlightenment laid the groundwork for modern democratic societies and the development of modern science and philosophy.

Class members & functions of the Estates-General

Was a representative assembly in France, made up of three estates: the First Estate (Clergy), the Second Estate (Nobility), and the Third Estate (Commoners, including peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie). It was called by the king to discuss and advise on issues such as taxation. The First and Second Estates had significant privileges, while the Third Estate, burdened with heavy taxes, had little power. Discontent with this imbalance led the Third Estate to break away and form the National Assembly in 1789, which contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Reason the Estates General met in 1789

France's severe financial crisis. King Louis XVI was facing mounting debt from wars, including involvement in the American Revolution, and a failing economy. The government was unable to raise enough funds through taxation, especially since the First and Second Estates (clergy and nobility) were exempt from most taxes. In an attempt to resolve the crisis, Louis XVI called for the Estates-General to meet for the first time since 1614. The hope was to discuss reforms and new taxes, but tensions quickly arose between the estates, particularly over voting methods and representation, leading to the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Goal of the Tennis Court Oath

Third Estate (commoners) to assert their determination to not separate until they had created a new constitution for France. After being locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General, they gathered in a tennis court in Versailles, where they vowed to continue meeting until they had addressed the country's financial and political crises. This oath marked a pivotal moment in the French Revolution, as it demonstrated the Third Estate's resolve to challenge the authority of the king and the other estates, eventually leading to the formation of the National Assembly.

Source of income for each estate

First Estate (Clergy) earned income from church taxes (like the tithe), donations, and land ownership. The Second Estate (Nobility) generated income through land ownership, feudal dues from peasants, and positions in government or the military. The Third Estate (Commoners), which included peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie, earned income through farming, trades, business, and professions. However, the Third Estate bore the brunt of taxation, while the First and Second Estates enjoyed significant tax exemptions.

Causes of the French Revolution

Financial crisis, social inequality, economic hardship, and Enlightenment ideas. France’s massive debt, worsened by wars and extravagant royal spending, led to financial strain, while the unfair taxation system burdened the commoners (Third Estate). Poor harvests and rising food prices increased economic hardship, fueling discontent. Enlightenment thinkers inspired demands for equality and democracy, challenging the absolute monarchy. King Louis XVI's weak leadership and inability to address these issues contributed to the outbreak of the revolution in 1789.

Causes of the financial crisis in France

Costly wars like the American Revolution and the Seven Years' War, which drained the treasury. Lavish royal spending by King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette worsened the situation, while an inefficient and unfair tax system burdened the Third Estate (commoners) who paid most taxes, while the First and Second Estates (clergy and nobility) were exempt. Additionally, France inherited large debts from previous reigns, and poor economic management compounded the problem, ultimately leading to the financial collapse and contributing to the French Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

People in Paris, worried about the king using military force against them, attacked the Bastille, a prison and symbol of royal power. They wanted to take weapons and free prisoners. The fall of the Bastille showed the power of the people and marked the start of the revolution. It is now celebrated every year as Bastille Day.

Ways the National Assembly changed French gov’t

Abolished feudalism, ending the privileges of the nobility and clergy. It then created the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, promoting equality, freedom, and the rule of law. The Assembly also limited the king's power, transforming France into a constitutional monarchy, and reformed the tax system to make it fairer. These changes marked the shift from absolute monarchy to a more democratic system.

Events of the Reign of Terror

Led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, used extreme measures to protect the revolution from its enemies. Thousands of people, including nobles, priests, and revolutionaries accused of being counter-revolutionaries, were executed by guillotine. The government enforced strict control over society, and fear of punishment led to widespread suspicion and arrests. The Reign of Terror ended with the execution of Robespierre in 1794, marking the end of this violent phase.

Napoleon’s efforts to expand the power of France

Military conquests across Europe. After becoming emperor in 1804, he built a large empire by defeating various European nations, including Austria, Prussia, and Spain. He introduced reforms like the Napoleonic Code and spread revolutionary ideas, such as legal equality and secular governance, in the territories he controlled. However, his expansionism eventually led to widespread resistance and the formation of coalitions against him, culminating in his defeat and exile.

Napoleon’s loss in Russia

He invaded with a large army to force Russia into an alliance. However, the Russian army used a strategy of scorched earth, burning crops and towns as they retreated, leaving Napoleon’s troops without supplies. The harsh winter and constant attacks weakened his army, and by the time he reached Moscow, the city was largely abandoned and in flames. Facing starvation and harsh conditions, Napoleon was forced to retreat, suffering a devastating loss that weakened his power and led to his eventual downfall.

Goals of the Congress of Vienna

Aimed to restore stability and order to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Its main goals were to redraw national boundaries, restore monarchies to their thrones, and establish a balance of power to prevent any one country from becoming too dominant. The Congress also sought to promote peace and avoid future conflicts in Europe by creating a system of diplomacy and alliances.

Results of the Congress of Vienna

The restoration of monarchies across Europe, the redrawing of national boundaries, and the establishment of a balance of power to prevent any one country from becoming too dominant. France’s territory was reduced, but it was not punished too harshly. The Holy Alliance was created between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and a Concert of Europe was established to maintain peace through diplomacy. These actions helped maintain relative peace in Europe for nearly a century, until the outbreak of World War I.

Role of Metternich at the Congress of Vienna

The leading figure at the Congress of Vienna and played a central role in shaping its decisions. As Austria's foreign minister, he aimed to restore the old order in Europe, emphasizing the balance of power and the restoration of monarchies. Metternich sought to contain the spread of revolutionary ideas and prevent the rise of another Napoleon. His diplomatic efforts led to the creation of a system that maintained stability in Europe for much of the 19th century, though it was eventually challenged by growing nationalism and liberal movements.

Defining characteristics of nationalism

Emphasizes pride and loyalty to one’s nation, often based on shared characteristics such as language, culture, history, and territory. It promotes the idea that people who share these common traits should form an independent nation-state or have greater self-governance. Nationalism can foster unity and a sense of identity, but it can also lead to conflict when different groups seek control over the same territory or when it challenges existing political structures.

Leaders of the Italian unification efforts

King Victor Emmanuel II, Count Camillo di Cavour, who used diplomacy and alliances to expand Piedmont-Sardinia's power; and Giuseppe Garibaldi, who led military campaigns to conquer southern Italy. Together, their efforts helped unite Italy into one nation by 1861.

Obstacles to unification in Italy

Foreign powers, like Austria and France, controlled parts of Italy, making it hard to unite. The different regions of Italy had their own cultures and economies, which made unity difficult. The Catholic Church opposed unification because it threatened the Papal States. Additionally, many monarchs and nobles were unwilling to give up their power. Despite these challenges, Italy was eventually unified by 1861.

Methods used to overcome obstacles to unification

Leaders used a mix of diplomacy, military action, and public support. Count Cavour formed alliances, especially with France, to weaken Austria’s control over Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi led military campaigns in the south, uniting it with the north. Nationalist ideas, promoted by figures like Mazzini, inspired the people to support unification. Strategic wars, such as the Second Italian War of Independence, helped weaken foreign powers and gain important land. These efforts eventually led to the unification of Italy in 1861.

Leaders of the German unification efforts

Otto von Bismarck, King Wilhelm I, and Helmuth von Moltke. Bismarck used diplomacy and war to unite the German states, while King Wilhelm I supported him and became the first Emperor of Germany. Moltke, a military general, helped lead Prussia to victory in key wars. Together, they united Germany into one nation by 1871.

Obstacles to unification in Germany

independence of many German states, each with its own leaders and interests. Austria and France also opposed a united Germany. Different political systems in the states made it hard to agree on a government. Some states, like Austria, didn’t want to lose their power. These challenges were overcome by Otto von Bismarck through diplomacy and military action.

Bismarck’s methods to gain control over Germany

used smart politics and war to gain control over Germany. He made alliances, fought wars with Denmark, Austria, and France, and won, which helped bring the German states together. He also used diplomacy to keep enemies isolated. Through these methods, Bismarck united Germany under Prussian rule.

Reason smaller German states opposed unification

didn’t want to lose their independence and power. They feared being controlled by Prussia and had different political systems, making it hard to agree on joining together.

Battles/wars waged in the unification process

The Danish War in 1864 saw Prussia and Austria defeat Denmark and gain important territories. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia defeated Austria, removing it from the German Confederation and strengthening Prussia’s power. The final war, the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), was used by Bismarck to unite the German states against France, leading to the full unification of Germany. These wars, along with clever diplomacy, helped Prussia unify Germany.

Causes and results of independence movements in Latin America

Enlightenment ideas, frustration with colonial rule, and economic struggles. The creoles wanted more power, and Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal weakened their control, leading to uprisings. As a result, countries like Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina gained independence, but they faced political problems and struggles for power afterward.

What was the order of the assemblies formed after the tennis court oath?

National assembly, legislative assembly, national convention, directory

Mexico independance

won after creoles took charge from indigenous people.