PSCL 230 Exam 2: Chapters 5-10 Cumulative Questions

Explain infant weight gain within the first year of life

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* Newborns lose several ounces in the first 3 days and then gain an ounce a day for months 
* Birth Weight doubles at 4 months and then triples at 1 year

How many inches does an infant grow by age 1?

10 inches

If a baby drops in percentile what could this suggest? What about an increase in percentile?

poor nutrition or overfeeding

What kinds of things affect weight gain, causing failure to thrive?

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* allergies, the microbiome, and liver problems

How many hours do newborns sleep?

15-17 hours a day → gradually decreases over time

What type of sleep accounts for 1/2 of newborn’s sleep? What takes over when it begins to decrease after a few weeks?

REM (rapid eye movement) because newborns dream alot.

* Over the early weeks, REM sleep and traditional sleep declines rapidly
* Slow-wave sleep increases

What is slow wave sleep?

Slow-wave sleep (SWS) refers to phase 3 sleep, which is the deepest phase of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Your brainwaves are the slowest during SWS, and when monitored with an EEG their activity is synchronized. During this time your heart rate and respiratory rate decrease significantly, and your muscles relax as well. It can be quite difficult to wake up from slow wave sleep, even if there are loud noises.

why do some parents chose to co-sleep?

Parents can quickly respond to a hungry or frightened baby and foster a bond via a close physical connection

Why is bed sharing controversial?

Doubles the risk of SIDS. Bed-sharing increases the chance of suffocation, strangulation, and SIDS. An adult bed has many safety risks for a baby, including: suffocation from a soft mattress, memory foam, waterbed, or loose or soft bedding such as pillows, blankets, or quilts.

Compare a newborn brain to an adult one

A newborn brain has fewer dendrites, axons, and synapses and much less myelin than an adult brain

What types of things harm the infant brain?

1. No Stimulation → stimulation is necessary as playing, allowing varied sensations, and encouraging movement are necessary for brain connections
2. Stress → overabundance of stress hormones damages later brain functioning
3. severe social deprivation → isolation and sensory deprivation harm the developing brain
4. Intervention → shaken baby syndrome

When does hearing occur in pregnancy and how does it develop after birth?

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* Develops during the last trimester of pregnancy
* Most advanced of the newborn's system 
* Speech perception by 4 months after birth

How does sight develop after birth?

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* Least mature sense at birth 
* Makes sense because they have been in a dark uterine environment not able to see 
* Newborns focus between 4 and 30 inches away
* New baby is attracted to the eyes of other people, and by age 1 infants interpret emotions, follow gaze, and use their own eyes to communicate
* Binocular vision occurs at 3 months

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What is binocular vision?

The ability to focus the two eyes in coordinated manner in order to see one image

How do smell and taste develop after birth?

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* Function at birth 
* Rapidly adapt to the social world 
* Related to family and cultural preferences 
* May have evolutionary function 
* Have preference to sweet as opposed to sour substances 
* Babies have much more sensitive taste 
* Have more tastebuds

Do infants feel pain?

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* Some people assume that even the fetus can feel pain; others say that the sense of pain does not mature until months or years later 
* They do feel pain they just adapt to it at a quick rate 

Why do hospitals prick the heel of the baby after birth?

The drops of blood will reveal the presence of any of several genetic diseases, including sickle-cell disease, cystic fibrosis, and phenylketonuria

How do babies cope with deep pain?

they fall asleep and REM helps them cope with what they are experiencing

How do reflexes become skills

Reflexes become skills if they are practiced and encouraged

Ex: stepping reflex will become walking

DEPENDS HEAVILY on caregiving and culture

What are 3 Interacting Elements Underlying Motor skills?

1. Muscle Strength
2. Brain Maturation
3. Practice

All healthy infants develop skills in the same sequence, but the age of acquisition varies. What types of things influence such variations.

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* Genes 
* Cultural patterns
* Nutrition 
* caregiving patterns 
* Encouragement 
* Helicopter parent vs leave it alone 

Sensation and motor skills further what three goals?

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* Social interaction 
* Comfort
* Sucking thumb 
* Learning

When do most child deaths occur?

most child deaths occur within the first month and in developing nations 99.9% of 1-month olds live to adulthood

What are some risks for SIDS?

sleeping on stomachs (most common), low birthweight, being male, smoking parents, soft blankets and pillows, bed-sharing, winter and a variety of abnormalities

What are the benefits of breastfeeding?

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* Breastfeeding reduces risk and malnutrition 


* Breastfed babies are less likely to develop allergies, asthma, obesity, and heart disease 
* As the infant gets older, the composition of breast milk adjusts to the baby’s changing nutritional needs 

What are the effects of chronic malnutrition?

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* Learning suffers 
* Diseases are more serious 
* Some diseases result directly from malnutrition
* Marasmus 
* Kwashiorkor

Explain face recognition in infants

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* Newborns are quicker to recognize a face seen only once; every face is interesting
* Babies learn to smile more readily at familiar people, differentiate men from women, and distinguish faces from own ethnic group (own-race effect)

Give a definition for Adaptation and then give an example pertaining to infants.

Adaptation can be defined as a readjustment to a method. An example of this can be found in breastfeeding and bottle feeding babies. Bottle feeding babies need to adapt to the quicker flow of the liquid in the bottle so they adapt to the speed in order to not choke or spit up

Explain the memory of an infant

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* Implicit memory
* Begins at 3 months
* Not able to discriminate between people (2 blonde women)
* Stable by 9 months 
* Children start to have separation anxiety 
* Know who their mother is and prefer their mother than a stranger 
* No substitute satisfies 
* Comes from old part of brain 
* Explicit memory takes longer to emerge
* Depends on language 
* Improves throughout childhood 

What is the difference between the secondary circular reactions and the tertiary circular reactions?

while both involve experimenting with trial and error to explore the world around them, secondary reactions are very accidental and involve no thinking. Tertiary, however, involves much more planfulness and intention on behalf of the baby

Explain the timeline for object permanence

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* Younger than 8 months, stop searching when object disappears 
* At 8 months, search after object disappearance but not when wait occurs 
* At 2 years, OP, including A and B displacements 
* Will still search and find the object 
* Memory is good enough now for this 

What are affordances and how do they effect children?

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* Affordances Concern Perception (input):
* Perception requires selectivity 
* Affordances provide opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment 
* If we provide children with an enriched and safe environment they are going to learn and develop rules about life 
* If they grow up in a space, unorganized, and neglected environment they are not gonna learn 
* We need to provide children with a variety of mediums so they can experiment and operate and understand the way the world works 

What four factors determine the selection of which affordance is perceived and acted upon?

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* Sensory awareness 
* How aware you are of your environment
* Immediate motivation 
* Ex: hunger 
* Maturation 
* Can we use our words
* Experience 
* Prior experiences that affect our actions 

What two things help predict later vocabulary?

babbling and mother’s education

Explain the naming explosion

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* Once spoken vocabulary reaches about 50 words, it builds quickly, at a rate of 50 to 100 words per month
* 21 month olds say twice as many words as 10 month olds 

What are the three theories of language learning?

1. infants need to be taught → If adults want children to speak, understand, and later read well, they must talk to their infants
2. social impulses foster infant language → Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings
3. infants teach themselves → Language learning is innate; adults need not teach it, nor is it a by-product of social interaction

What is hybrid theory?

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* Some aspects of language learning may be best explained by one theory at one age and other as\[ects by another theory at another age 
* Multiple attentional, social, and linguistic cues contribute to early language

Explain the evolution of fear in infants

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* Fear begins with unexpected events then involves human interaction
* Unexpected events: fear of falling or loud noises 

On what 3 factors does the shift in sources of fear depend on?

1. awareness of discrepancy
2. inborn temperament
3. social context

If social fears (separation anxiety, stranger wariness) continue past age 3 what does this indicate?

Indicates the presence of an emotional disorder

Explain Temper Tantrums

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* Incapable of logic 
* Obedience to the tantrum exacerbates the issue 
* Comfort is the best reaction to a tantrum – not punishment 
* Tantrums are typical between ages of 1-2 but if they continue it is a sign of trouble in either the parent or child

How do infants react to things like ethnicity, immigration, or any type of difference between people?

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Attitudes about ethnicity, or immigration, or clothing, being with the infants preference for the familiar and interest in novelty, and then upbringing adds appreciation or rejection

At what age do babies become self-aware? What test did they conduct to test this?

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* Babies become self aware at about 15 to 24 months 
* Mirror/rouge test: 9-24 months old looks into a mirror after a red dot has been put on their noses 
* If they point to themselves rather than the mirror then then have self awareness

What are 3 distinct traits of temperament?

1. effortful control
2. negative mood
3. exuberance

What can be said about children with difficult temperaments?

Children with difficult temperaments are more likely to develop emotional problems

What is likely to happen to a baby if they have a mother who is depressed?

they will likely become fearful toddlers and depressed children

what does lack of social response do the brain?

causes brain shrinkage

What two things can effect the size of certain regions of the brain such as the amygdala and hippocampus?

caregiving and experience

What happens when a fearful and angry baby is met with a responsive caregiver who is not hostile nor neglectful?

This reaction causes the baby to become less angry and fearful. Once they become toddlers and children the baby is able to regulate their emotions because they have developed neurological links between brain excitement (fear and anger) and emotional response (caregiver response).

What affects does maltreatment have on infants?

too much stress and fear make the brain grow more slowly. Maltreated infants develop abnormal responses to stress, anger, and other emotions. Abused children also typically become sickly, slow-thinking adults, with erratic emotions.

why does maternal depression often lead to infant depression?

synchrony

What is the effect of absent synchrony?

Absent synchrony is a troubling sign for future emotional and brain development

What are some characteristics of secure attachment?

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* Provides assurance that enables discovery 
* Child will be confident to leave the arms of the caregiver but still maintains a connection with the caregiver 
* Looks back periodically (contact maintaining)
* Brings the discovery or toy to the caregiver (proximity seeking)
* Presence causes courage while departure causes distress (however the distress is not overwhelming)
* When the caregiver returns positive contact is displayed (hugging and smiling) and then the child goes back to playing 
* Concerned but not overwhelmed by coming and goings of the caregiver
* Accounts for ⅔ of infants 

What percentage of children do types A and C (insecure attachment) account for?

1/3

Describe characteristics of disorganized attachment (type D)?

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* Sudden shifts in emotions and actions (hitting to kissing)
* Account for 5-10% of infants 
* Children whom display TYPE D are concerning because they have no consistent strategy for social interaction 
* At a greater risk for later psychopathology (ex: severe aggression and major depression)

What happened to the romanian children?

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* Romanian Orphanages 
* Dictator ban abortions and birth control 
* Illegal abortions became leading cause of death for romanian women 
* 170000 children were sent to orphanages who could not handle the surplus of children so they were run down and abusive 
* Children were deprived of social contact and did not develop any synchrony 
* If this social deprivation lasted more than a year emotions and cognition suffered 
* Overly friendly → sign of insecure attachment
* Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder: makes the individual vulnerable throughout adulthood as they follow people who will harm them
* Lower IQ’s
* Early emotional deprivation (not genes or nutrition) is the greatest problem for brain development 

what is the outcome of proximal Parenting?

Infants who has proximal become toddlers who are more obedient but are less likely to recognize themself in a mirror

Are working models fixed? What is an example of one?

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* Not fixed it develops over time 
* Working models can affect relationships 
* Ex: a girls parents exhibit erratic behavior therefore her model will represent that people are unpredictable and she will apply this to everyone → childhood friendships will be insecure as a result and her adult relationships will be guarded

According to evolutionary theory what must babies do?

Babies must attract adult devotion to survive as they do not have control over their bodies

In the US What percentage of infants were cared for exclusively by their mother? What percent had mothers in the labor force and experienced allocare?

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* Only 20% of infants are cared for exclusively by their mothers (no relatives or babysitters) throughout the first year
* 58% of mothers were in the labor force

What are 5 essential characteristics of high-quality day care during infancy?

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* Adequate attention to each infant
* Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development
* Attention to health and safety
* Professional caregivers 
* Warm and responsive caregivers

Explain the bodily changes a child experiences during ages 2 and 6

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* Height and weight increase from years 2-6 by \~1ft and 16lbs
* Children slim down as the lower body lengthens and fat is replaced by muscle 
* Features that have disappeared: protruding belly, round face, short limbs, large head
* Center of gravity moves to the belly 
* All of these changes enable new achievements 
* During each year of early childhood
* Grow 3 inches each year 
* Gain 4 ½ pounds each year 
* 6 year old stats
* 3 ½ ft tall
* 40-50 lbs
* Lean and not chubby 
* Has adult-like proportions 

How much sugar is the recommended daily amount according to the AHA? What is the average intake? What are the effects of too much sugar?

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* AHA recommends no more than six teaspoons of natural or added sugars (including high fructose corn syrup)
* On average, a child today consumes 3x that amount 
* Too much sugar:
* Poor circulation → heart attacks in the future

What percentage of children are allergic to a specific food? What can a mother do to possibly reduce the probability of a peanut allergy?

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* 6-8% of children are allergic to a specific food 
* Pregnant women who ingested peanuts during pregnancy found that their children were less likely to be allergic

Explain brain growth development during ages 2-6

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* By age 2 substantial pruning has occurred 
* 2 year old’s brain already weighs 75% of what it will in adulthood 
* 6 year old brain is 90% of an adult weight brain

What are some of the purposes of myelin?

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* Insulation around axons 
* Smooths the connection between neurons that are far from each other 
* Regulates the timing of information flow through individual circuits

What kinds of things affect lateralization?

Genes, prenatal hormones, and early experiences

How does neurological control advance between the ages of 2 and 6?

ed

* Sleep becomes more regular
* Emotions become more nuanced and responsive 
* Temper tantrums subside 
* Uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common

What two things do neurons do?

inhibit or activate

why do impulsiveness and perseveration occur?

Impulsiveness and perseveration occur because the immaturity of the prefrontal cortex makes controlling the limbic system impossible

How do gross motor skills improve during early childhood (2-6 yrs)?

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* Improve dramatically during early childhood 
* Skills that use balanced coordination and both brain hemispheres improve dramatically with age 
* Balanced coordination by age 5 is impressive but it all depends on practice 

Why is play important?

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* Play is considered crucial for every aspect of child development, cognitive and social as well as physical.
* A lot of motor skills develop when children play freely with other children 

What four things do adults need to facilitate for play to help their children grow?

1. safe space to play
2. time for play
3. appropriate equipment
4. playmates

What are some age related dangers for children?

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* Falls 
* Motor-vehicle death 
* Poison 
* Fire 
* Drowning

What are some safety precautions people could take to prevent age related dangers?

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* Car seats 
* Bike helmets
* Safety containers for medication 
* Pool monitoring

Effects of lead poisoning

* Teenage involvement in impulsive, violent crimes is often linked to lead poisoning of the brain

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* Plumbism (lead poisoning)
* Composite of 157 brains of adults, who as children had high lead levels in their blood, shows reduced brain volume 

What are some of the warning signs of maltreatment/abuse in children?

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* In general: delayed development (slow growth, immature communication, lack of curiosity, unusual social interactions)
* By early childhood: fearful, startled by noise, defensive, quick to attack, confused between fantasy and reality 
* These are symptoms of PTSD

What are the social effects mistreatment and neglected children experience?

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* Tend to hate themselves and distrust everyone else 
* Are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children 
* Experience greater social deficits and relationship struggles 
* May experience large and enduring economic consequences

What are some examples of tertiary prevention?

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* Permanency planning 
* Foster care 
* Kinship care 
* adoption

What 3 essential abilities are combined for executive functions?

1. memory
2. inhibition
3. flexibility

Why do children participate in animism and at what age do they stop?

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* Many children's stories and movies include animals and objects that talk and listen 
* Preoperational thought is symbolic and magical not logical and realistic 
* By age 10 animism disappears as they reach concrete operational stage 

what 4 limitations make logic difficult?

1. centration
2. focus on appearance
3. static reasoning
4. irreversibility

What types of things should mentors do?

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* Present challenges 
* Offer assistance (without taking over) 
* Add crucial information 
* Encourage motivation

What is an example of accidental scaffolding and why does this occur?

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*  Overimitation is common among 2- to 6-years-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient 
* Scaffolding can happen accidentally causing children to copy certain actions that might not be appropriate like cursing

What are the 2 ways in which language is pivotal?

1. private speech → internal dialogue
2. social mediation → human interaction

What are children able to do by 1st grade?

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* Count objects, with one number per item 
* Remember times and ages 
* Understand sequence 
* Know which numbers are greater than others (four bites are more than two) 
* Understand how to make things move 
* Appreciate temperature effects, from ice to steam

What types of things strengthen theory of mind in young children?

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* Child's ability to develop theories correlates with the maturity of the prefrontal cortex and with advances in executive processing 
* Pracitive, experience, and maturation are relevant
* Context and culture matter

What type of period is language?

Early childhood is a SENSITIVE period not a CRITICAL period for language. This means that one can learn a new language in adulthood however it will be more difficult but not impossible

What helps rapid learning of a language?

proximity of someone who regularly speaks to them

What are 5 strategies and experiences for literacy?

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* Code focused teaching 
* Book-reading 
* Parent education 
* Language enhancement 
* Early-education programs

What are the 2 types of pre-schools?

1. Child centered → encourage each child's creative individuality 
2. Teacher directed → prepare the child for formal education

Explain child-centered programs

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* “Teaching the whole child”
* Social and emotional growth not just academic 
* Children should follow their own interests rather than what adults think they should do
* Physical space and the materials are arranged to allow explorations 
* Encourage artistic expression
* Music and drama 
* do not want to rush child into adulthood

Explain teacher directed programs

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* Stress academics 
* Taught by one adult to a whole group 
* Learn names, letters, numbers, shapes, and colors according to a set timetable 
* Learn to sit quietly and listen to the teacher
* Reinforcements and punishments are given 
* Goal: make all children ready to learn for elementary school
* Inspired by behaviorism which emphasizes step-by-step learning and repetition

What are some characteristics of Montessori Schools?

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* Children needed structured individualized projects to give them a sense of accomplishment 
* Encourage children to help other children

What are some characteristics of the Reggio Emilia program?

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* Children are taught to master skills that US children do not learn until age 7 
* Expensive to duplicate in other nations 
* No large group instruction 
* Hands on activities are chosen by each child 
* Drawing, cooking, and gardening are stressed 
* Democracy and freedom or personal expression 
* Learning is documented during scrapbooks, photos, and daily notes 
* Not to measure progress but to mark accomplishments
* Enhances memory 

What are some characteristics of Waldorf Schools?

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* Appreciation of nature 
* Children of various ages learn together 
* Older children = mentors 
* Curriculum serves interests not age 
* Set schedule 
* Children are not expected to master specific knowledge at certain ages 
* Imagination is valued

What is protective optimism?

Consists of positivity bias that helps a young child try new things

Begins around age 3

Belief about the child’s self-worth tied to parental confirmation

What are secondary emotions?

pride, envy, and guilt

What are Parten’s stages of play?

1. solitary
2. onlooker
3. parallel
4. associative
5. cooperative

Problems of screen time

Screen time reduces active play time for many \n children. \n  Less conversation, imagination, outdoor activity \n  Consequences for obesity, emotional immaturity, and \n intellectual growth \n  Most children watch more than recommended; are \n unsupervised