Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

the study of structure and shape of body and its parts

Gross anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
-> heart, lungs, spleen

Microscopic anatomy

structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

cytology

study of cells

histology

the study of tissues and how they are arranged into organs

physiology

function, how the body works

Pathology

study of disease state, and disease of itself
ex. cancer

normative approach

study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones

surveys

collect info, large samples, less costly
subjects need to be able to read, social desirability, and wording of survey can bias responses

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

structured observation

technique in which a researcher creates a setting in a lab that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest

Harry Harlow's research

monkeys tended to go towards the doll that had clothing because of attachment rather then going to the doll with food

clinical interview

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view

structured interview

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

case studies

study focus on one personcollect rich and detailed information about a casino a representative sample

Ethnography

the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have

experiment pros and cons

- can be relatively certain of causal relationship
- relatively easy to manipulate
- do not always translate to "real world"
- some causal variables can't be manipulated

descriptive design

design used to identify a phenomenon of interest, identify variables within the phenomenon, develop conceptual and operational definitions of variables, and describe variables

correlation design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

correlation does not equal causation

Correlation does not mean cause and effect. A correlation of 1 between two variables does not mean that one necessarily causes the other. A correlation of 0 does not mean that one prevents the other. For example, height and weight in people have a positive correlation. However, the height does not cause the weight or vice versa. It's just that they are most likely to be strongly related.

developmental research design

cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential

cross-sectional study

differing ages at the same time

longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

attrition

dropping out of study

practice effects

answer right questions because of repetition

cohort effects

The effects of being born and raised in a particular time or situation where all other members of your group has similar experiences that make your group unique from other groups

ethical guidelines for research on human participants

never harm participants
informed consent
deep data confidential
knowledge of results

being a wise consumer of information

operate group from individual outcomes
don't overgeneralize from small sample
don't attribute cause when there's none
evaluate source of info

what do theories do

produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, offer practical guidance

psychoanalytic theory (focus on emotions)

attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Freud Psychoanalytic

Psychosexual- emphasize biological drive

Erikson Psychoanalytic

psychosocial- emphasize social influences paid more attention to social/contextual influences, and proposed 8 developmental stages, each characterized by a developmental crisis

cognitive theory

Focuses on structure and development of conscious thoughts.

cognitive theory Piaget

Cognitive development is a result of individual discovery; discontinuous stages;
Stages (Sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational)

cognitive theory vygotsky

- Vygotsky believed it was the influence of others that drives development stating knowledge was socially constructed.
Children's cognitive development is a social activity guided by others who may: present new challenges, offer assistance, encourage interest

cognitive theory information- processing theory

compares computer to human mind
organization & elaboration; to combine items into meaningful chunks; to link a new item to familiar infor to help retrieve information

cognitive neuroscience

Using brain-imaging techniques to clarify the brain bases of many learning & behavioral experiences

behaviorism

Focuses on processes by which behavior is learned;
Emphasizes directly observable events (stimuli & responses) in order to create an objective science of psychology

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus (unrelated to the responses) become associated with a meaningful stimulus
"pavloving" dogs with a bell for food

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

a response is gradually learned via reinforcement or punishment

social learning theory (bandura)

Extension of learning theory that includes modeling which involves people observing behavior and patterning their own after it

ethological theory

stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods
-imprinting a mom it's THEIR mom

ecological theory

Environmental factors influence development.

microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

mesosystem

connections between microsystems

Exosystem

affect children indirectly through microsystems

macrosystem

cultural values, laws, customs

chronosystem

time or historical changes that influence the other systems

dynamic systems perspective

No one theory has all the answers. Each theory can make a contribution to understanding human development.

genotype

genetic makeup

phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

chromosome

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.

DNA

molecules are long, double-stranded molecules that make up chromosomes

genes

segments of DNA that code for a trait

zygote

fertilized egg Reproductive cells (sperm & ovum) fuse and become a zygote, which then begins the process of duplication and division

sex determination

XX or XY, males determine sex because they're the only one with a Y

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

dizygotic twins

often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

dominant-recessive genes

phenotype shows one gene more influential than other genes

additive genes

gene that add something to phenotype when genes interact this way, all the involved genes contribute relatively equally
->skin color and height

x-linked recessive genes

a gene carried on the X chromosome; if a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he will have the trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene; females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to actually show the traits

mutation

sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA

polygenetic traits

inherited traits produced by different genes -> eye color

Down syndrome

Three #21 chromosomes : distinct physical features; delayed cognitive development.

genetic counseling

guidance for prospective parents on the likelihood of genetic disorders in their future children
charts patterns of health and illness over generations
Some tests provide information before conception

examples of genetic counseling

ultrasound, Amniocentesis, Maternal blood screening.

reproductive technology

Pros: important tool to help people conceive, fewer rel. complications, motivating parents, strengthened bond, better prepared
Cons/challenges: cost, taxing on the body, medical complications, time consuming, fewer children to be adopted,

adoption

Pros: make a difference in a child's life, give parents a chance to enjoy parenting
Cons/challenges: relationships with the birth culture, or birth parents, identity ( to fit in and to belong),

klinefelters syndrome

a chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXy condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility

turner syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted. underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics

cohort effects

individuals are influenced by particular historical and cultural conditions
e.g. how do generations differ on:
at what age to have child
how many children to have

LMP

last menstrual period- two weeks before the date of conception

typical length of full-term pregnancies

38 weeks, 266 days

prenatal development begins

conception and ends at birth

zygote

0-2 weeks, Fertilization, Implantation, Start of Placenta

embryo

2-8 weeks 6 weeks Arms, legs, face, organs, muscles all develop, Heart begins beating, All basic organs & body parts (but for sex) present

fetus

30 weeks 9-38 weeks "Growth and finishing"

cephalocaudal pattern

growth starts from the head and moves down to the feet

proximodistal pattern

the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities

teratogens

any environmental agents that cause damage during the prenatal period

sensitive period

the time when a particular organ or other body part is most susceptible to teratogenic damage

threshold effect

teratogen relatively harmless until exposure reaches a certain level

maternal stress

Stress hormones cross the placenta, causing a dramatic rise in fetal heart rate and activity. It predicts anxiety, short attention span, anger, aggression, and overactivity among preschoolers and young children

women delay prenatal care

financial hardships and Personal Barriers (e.g., do not want to reveal high-risk beh.) like drinking and drugs

3 stages of birth process

Stage 1: Dilation & effacement of the cervix Stage 2: Delivery of the baby Stage 3: Delivery of the placenta

Stage 1 Dilation and effacement of the cervix

12—14 hrs (1st birth), 4-6 hrs (later births)

Stage 2 delivery of the baby

50 min (1st), 20 min (later ones)

Stage 3 Delivery of the placenta

5-10 minutes

medical interventions

Fetal Monitoring, Medication, Instrument Delivery: forceps, vacuum extraction, Induced Labor: using a hormone to stimulate contractions;
successful or not, affected by a placental hormone CRH;

Breech position

C-section is used when baby is in this position. Feet first in the birth canal. Occur in about 1 of 25 births, place the baby at risk because umbilical cord is more likely to be compressed, depriving the baby oxygen.

cesarean deliver

30% of births a birth in which the baby is surgically removed from the uterus Premature separation of the placenta from the uterus, Serious maternal illness or infection, Baby in breech position

anoxia

Oxygen deprivation, Can lead to brain damage or later cognitive, language problems

preterm babies

Born weeks before their due date. May be appropriate weight for length of pregnancy.

age of viability

22-26 wks, the earliest age when the fetus can survive if born prematurely

small-for-date babies

May be born at due date or preterm. Below expected weight for length of pregnancy.

Apgar scale

appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration

major reflexes

rooting (going to latch), sucking, babinski reflex (curling toes when foot touched), Moro reflex (startled and feel like falling)

preparing for parenthood

a. increase marital satisfaction since now the couple have a wonderful little one that can help bond them
b. decrease marital satisfaction since there are lots of changes

areas of potential spousal disagreement

Chores and division of labor; Money; Work; Their relationship; and Social life.