Wetland Ecology Exam 2

Obligately anaerobic methanogens

Which archaea group is of most relevance to wetlands?

Archaea lipids are more resistance to extreme conditions

Structure of archaea lipids is ether-linked while bacteria is ester-linked

Archaea ribosomes resemble those of eukaryotes

Three main factors distinguish archaea from bacteria

Availability of carbon, energy, and nutrients (N & P)

intensity of grazing by zooplankton

lysis by viruses

Factors that influence bacterial abundance in wetlands

Chemoorganotrophs

Comprise most bacteria

Obtain both carbon and energy from organic material

Chemolithotrophs

Obtain Energy from reduced inorganic compounds like methane, nitrite or H2S

Obtain Carbon from organic or inorganic sources

Photoautotrophs

Obtain Energy from light

Fix carbon from inorganic sources like CO2

Photoheterotrophs

Obtain energy from light

Obtain carbon from organic sources

They are in hundreds of billions/L in freshwater and billions in ocean water

How abundant are viruses and where?

Virus

Obligate parasites that are specialized to infect only a particular bacterial species

High nutrients stimulate the lytic viral cycle because of the enhanced growth rate of the host bacteria

Relationship between nutrient availability and virus life cycle

Help transfer nutrients to higher trophic levels

Degrade natural and anthropogenic polymers

Play a role in decomposition of particulate organic matter

Ecological roles of fungi in wetlands

Fungal residents

Aquatic fungi that reside in wetlands

Fungal transients

Terrestrial fungi that are blown into wetlands

Microalgae

Free form algae found in open water environments

OR

free form algae that are attached to surfaces

(Smaller forms)

Macroalgae

Diverse growth forms of algae that include filamentous, parenchymatous, coenocytic (Larger forms)

Water column

Pores of sediments

Organic and Inorganic surfaces

Microbial habitats

Gross Primary Productivity

Total CO2 uptake in photosynthesis

Net Primary Productivity

Plant CO2 uptake minus plant respiration

Net Ecosystem Productivity

GPP minus respiration from plants and heterotrophs

Water column

Surfaces (Inorganic and Organic)

Sediments

Three main microbial habitats in wetlands

Photosynthesis Carbon Transformation(s)

CO2 —> POC

Respiration Carbon Transformation(s)

POC —> CO2

DOC —> CO2

Fermentation Carbon Transformation(s)

POC —> Ethanol

POC —> Lactic Acid

Methanogenesis Carbon Transformation(s)

DOC —> CH4

Methane Oxidation Carbon Transformation(s)

CH4 —> CO2

Nitrite

Ammonium

Nitrous Oxide

Nitrate

Dinitrogen

Inorganic forms of Nitrogen

Nitrification

NH₄⁺ to NO₂^-

NH₄⁺ to NO₃^-

Ammonium ion oxidizes to nitrite then nitrate

Requires O₂ Occurs in water and Oxidized Soil Layer, but could occur in anaerobic (Oxidized Rhizosphere)

Nitrate Reduction

NO₃^- to NH₄⁺

Inorganic N to inorganic N

Electron acceptor turns to ammonium only in reduced soil layer

Anammox

NH₄⁺ to N₂

Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation

ammonium ion transformed to N₂ gas in anaerobic soil layer

Denitrification

NO₃^- to N₂

NO₃^- to N₂O

Nitrate (inorganic) is transformed into molecular N gas (N₂) and Nitrous Oxide gas (N₂O)

Occurs only in the anaerobic soil layer

Volatization

NH₄⁺ to NH₃

Occurs in high pH conditions (<8)

ammonium ion is turned to ammonia gas and released to the atmosphere

occurs in the oxidized soil layer or water layer

Runoff

Leaching

Volatization

Denitrification

Reactions or processes that result in the removal of nitrogen from a wetland system

Nitrate Reduction

Manganese Reduction

Iron Reduction

Humic Reduction

Sulfate Reduction

Methanogenesis

Order of reactions/transformations in the reduced soil layer first to last

Oxidation Reactions

NH4+ —> N2

H2S —> S

CH4 —> CO2

DOC —> CO2

Reduction Reactions

NO3- —> NH4+

CO2 —> CH4

SO4-2 —> H2S

NO3- —> N2O

Oxidation Reaction

Sulfate Reduction

What reaction does DOC ---> CO₂ represent and what is a possible reaction it would be paired with from the sulfur cycle? 

Oxidation Reaction

Nitrate Reduction

What reaction does DOC ---> CO₂ represent and what is a possible reaction it would be paired with from the nitrogen cycle? 

Oxidation Reaction

Sulfate Reduction 

What reaction does CH₄ ---> CO₂ represent and what is a possible reaction it would be paired with from the sulfur cycle?

Oxidation Reaction

Nitrate Reduction

What reaction does CH₄ ---> CO₂ represent and what is a possible reaction it would be paired with from the nitrogen cycle? 

Mineralization

The process of converting organic forms of an element to inorganic forms

Examples of mineralization

DOC ---> CO₂

Organic S ---> SO₄^-2

SON ---> NH₄⁺

SOP ---> PO₄^-3

Phosphorus has no gaseous phase and is not directly altered by redox processes

What distinguishes phosphorus cycle from other cycles?

PO₄^3-

Becomes available due to release from Fe³⁺

Increases in concentration over time

H₂S, NH₄^-, Mn²⁺, Fe²⁺

Reduced forms of these substances

Increases concentration over time

Organic Matter

The electron donor

Decreases over time

N₂, N₂O

Products of the alternate electron acceptor that gets utilized first (Nitrogen)

NO₃^-, SO₄^2-, Mn⁴⁺, Fe³⁺

Their transformations can be paired with DOC —> CO₂

Decrease in concentration over time

Oxidation

Reduction

Adds Oxygen, Removes Hydrogen, or Gains an Electron (becomes more negative)

Removes Oxygen, Adds Hydrogen, or Loses an Electron (becomes more positive)

It's the Code of Federal Regulations which contains the permanent rules of the federal government. It's divided into 50 titles representing broad areas under federal regulation

In regards to federal regulation in the United States, what does CFR refer to and how is it organized?

Title: 40
Part: 230
Section: 3
Subpart: s

In regards to the structure of the CFR and how it's cited, how would the following citation - 40 CFR 230.3(s)

33 & 40

The two CFR titles with major regulations for wetland protection (Navigation & Navigable Waters, Protection of the Environment)

Soil processes developed under anaerobic conditions

Soil saturation or flooding

Presence of hydrophytes

Commonality between USFWS, USACE and other definitions of wetlands

Three

How many "paragraphs" in the definition of "waters of the United States) in the US Army Corps of Engineers Clean Water Act Section 404 specifically use the term "wetland" in their description?

Which policy/regulation that has impacted wetlands does not belong with the others?

Coastal Zone Management Act 1972

Fish & Wildlife Coordination Act 1967

No Net Loss 1988 - It is not an act of legislation

National Environmental Policy Act 1969

Food Security Act 1985

Allowing for a classification system related to the production of wetland-dependent plants and animals.

Purpose of USFWS 1956 Wetland Definition

1979 USFWS

1977 USACE

1985 USDA

The National Research Council (NRC) 17-member committee acknowledged three definitions of wetlands

US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

US Fish and Wildlife Services (USFWS)

US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

Which three federal agencies have the most significant/direct influence on regulation of wetlands?

Viewing wetlands as wastelands and encouraged draining and "reclamation".

The 19th Century policy and attitude towards wetlands can be summed up as...

The Water Pollution Control Act - 1948

Before becoming the Clean Water Act (CWA), the original regulation that eventually became the CWA after numerous amendments was known as 

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) 1967

Required that any federal agency and other entities seeking authorization or license to impound, divert, or modify any stream or other body or water for any purpose to first consult with Fish and Wildlife Services in order to minimize impact on wildlife resources.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969

Instructed all federal agencies and other entities receiving federal funding to evaluate and consider environmental impacts of proposed major federal actions

Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) 1972

Codified a national policy intended to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, restore or enhance the Nation's coastal resources such as wetlands, floodplains, estuaries, beaches and others.

Food Security Act (FSA) 1985

Included the "swampbuster" provision which denied farmers any federal support if they converted a wetland for agricultural use

Clean Water Act (CWA) 1977

Consist of Section 404 permitting program that regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into waters of the United States

The “Duck Stamp” 1934

Raised/raises funds to purchase or lease wetland habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System by selling federal licenses to waterfowl hunters over the age of 16.

“Ducks Unlimited” 1937

Private conservation groups organized & began raising public awareness and resources to protect wetlands and other aquatic habitat critical to migratory waterfowl.

Westport Connecticut

Its citizens lobbied against proposal to fill a salt marsh on Sherwood Island State Park and these efforts led to passage of state law to regulate dredging & safeguard wildlife habitat

Save the San Francisco Bay Association

Lobbied against plans by City of Berkeley to fill about 2000 acres of wetlands and their efforts also led to passage of state law to oversee all proposals to fill portions of the San Francisco Bay.

Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring”

Documented the ramifications of pesticides in the environment, acting as a catalyst for the public's outcry in favor of regulation to safegaurd environmental quality in the US.

William Niering’s “The Life of the Marsh”

Described how the sensitive ecosystems function and the impacts those ecosystems had incurred as a result of pollution and development.

NRDC v. Callaway

An environmental advocacy group (the plaintiff) challenged the defendant's narrow application of the term "navigable waters" in federal court. The U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia agreed with the plaintiff.

United States v. Holland

A court decision that broadened the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) Section 404 program to include manmade conveyances.

Leslie Salt Co. v. United States

A case involving jurisdiction over manmade seasonally wet depressions (pits) that provided habitat for migratory birds. A lower court ruled in favor of plaintiff but the Court of Appeals for the Ninth District reversed that decision.

Hoffman Homes v. Administrator

Plaintiff in this case was penalized by USACE for filling an isolated intrastate wetland that was deemed suitable habitat for migratory birds and the Seventh District Court of Appeals overturned USACE's penalty (thus ruling in favor of plaintiff). However, this decision was reversed by the same court of appeals when the government requested a rehearing.

United States v. Riverside Bayview

A supreme court ruling in favor of the petitioner, unanimously overruling the lower court that had previously ruled against the petitioner. Case was in regards to a developer who sued when they were denied a permit to fill marshes near Lake St. Clair, Michigan and won the case in the district court.

SWANCC v. USACE

The plaintiff was denied permit over an isolated, nonnavigable, and entirely intrastate waters on a site due to presence of migratory birds. The district court and court of appeals both ruled against the plaintiff. The supreme court ruled in favor of petitioner, stating that the migratory bird rule exceeded granted authority.

Executive Order 11574

The order established a permit program to be administered under the provisions of the Refuse Act requiring industries to obtain authorization prior to discharging waste into navigable waters. Order signed by President Nixon in 1970

Executive Order 11988

An executive order for management of floodplains, establishing policies directed at avoiding short-term and long-term impacts resulting from occupying and modifying floodplains. Order was signed by President Jimmy Carter in 1977

Executive Order 11990

An executive order for wetland protection, directing federal agencies to minimize destruction, loss or degradation of wetlands while carrying out their responsibilities. Order was signed by President Jimmy Carter in 1977

Executive Order 12630

An executive order on property rights, intended to ensure that government actions that affect the ability of individuals to use their private property (for example, inability to utilize private land that has a wetland on it) are undertaken on a well-reasoned basis with due regard for the potential financial impacts imposed on the government

Executive Order 12962

An executive order for conservation of aquatic systems for recreational fisheries, requiring federal agencies to improve the quality, function, and sustainable productivity and distribution of U.S. aquatic resources for increased recreational fishing opportunities

Ecological services provided are worth more than those of uplands and marine ecosystems

Why is there a need for wetland restoration?

They are able to store significant amounts of CO₂ due to slow decomposition but are also a source of methane gas

Role of wetlands in climate regulation through influence on atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations

Denitrification returns N to the atmosphere and requires anaerobic conditions abundantly found in wetlands

The enzyme needed to convert N gas to biologically usable form requires anoxic conditions found in wetlands

Peatlands store significant amounts of C due to slow rates of decomposition

Wetland role in the N and C cycles as justification for wetland restoration

Conservation

Implies that a wetland will be retained without specifying exactly how it will be managed

Includes human activity

Preservation

Maintaining an existing highly valued wetland in its valued state

Excludes human activity

Mitigation

Purchasing or creating a wetland to compensate for damaging an existing wetland elsewhere

Rehabilitation

Making specified changes to an existing wetland in order to improve one or more of the wetlands’ services

Creation

Making a new wetland in an area where one did not exist previously

Restoration

The process of returning a damaged/degraded wetland to its original state

Species Richness

Number of different species in a sample

Species Diversity

Abundance of different species in a sample

Simpson’s Diversity Index

1 - D

D = SUM(p_i²)

p_i = proportion of individuals to total

D = Probability that two randomly selected individuals belong to the same species

1 - D = Probability that tow randomly selected individuals belong to different species

High Simpson = Low D = High Diversity

Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index

H = - SUM(p_i)*(ln(p_i))

p_i = proportion of individuals to total

High H = High Diversity