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methods
structured/non-structured interviews
questionnaires
participant observation
field study/ethnography
archive data
content/conversational analysis
quantitative approach
measuring variables
describing distributions/associations
making plots
formulating hypotheses
geospatial data concepts
numbers
theory testing
deductive
positivism (using brief, clear, concise discussion and does not use a descriptive story from human feelings or subjective interpretation)
Qualitative approach
words
inductive approach
generate theories
not one truth to be discovered
constructivism (rejects the idea that there is objective knowledge)
interpretivism (assumption that reality is subjective, multiple and socially constructed)
Quantitative
numbers
pov of researcher
researcher is distant
static
structured
generalization
hard,reliable data
behavior
artificial setting
-- is this always the case?
Qualitative
words
pov of participants
researcher is close
emerging
process
unstructured
contextual understanding
rich,deep data
meaning
natural setting
-- Is this always the case?
Reliability
same results when repeating parts of your study
validity
is your instrument measuring the thing you intent to measure?
(if something is unreliable usually also not valid)
internal validity
important in qualitative studies
A concern with the question of whether a finding that incorporates a causal relationship between two or more variables is sound
external validity
better in quantitative studies
A concern with the question of whether the results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific research context in which it was conducted
trustworthiness
in qualitative studies often talk about “trustworthiness”
credibility
transferability
dependability
confirmability
Urban Ethnography
method of social science research that investigates peoples lives, actions and beliefs
-study of life of communities, institutions…
-writing about people
Urban Ethnography characteristics
carried out in a natural setting
involves intimate face to face interaction
emphasis on perspective+meaning
inductive data collection and analysis
focus usually on small scale cases (no generalization)
possible to go back and forth between collecting data, analyzing and making theories
no influence on setting - observe something that is happening
What do Ethnographers do?
Narrate
Translate (give form to data)
Textualize (simulation of data)
making sense of world by watching
observation + field notes
photos, videos, texts, objects, documents
interviews
Unit of Analysis
sample (because of time and money)
-selected by ability to represent entire population
Role of the Researcher
part of the study (not detached)
choice of topic from own interests + institution
interpret, define and construct reality
knowledge is context specific
data that is collected depends on who collects it
personal
occupies a space of betweenness
never an insider
Social Identity wheel
→ impacts findings
basically anything that makes you you (identity markers)
personal/academic experiences
political preferences
hobbies, interests
gender
sexual orientation etc…
Pros and Cons of an Insider
+ gaining acceptance
+ knowing what to see/ask
+ use knowledge of group to gain intimate insights
+ less invasive
- restricts researcher’s ability to be critical
- difficult to detach personal experiences
- struggle to offer a distinct, neutral and balanced pov
- represent and speaking for the community (going native)
Pros and Cons of an Outsider
+ representing accurately without distorting meanings
+ greater degree of objectivity
+ allow them to see what others may take for granted
+ more likely to be perceived as neutral (give info not given to insider)
- difficult to gain access to participants
- may be unwilling to disclose their attitudes
- lack of internal and intimate knowledge about target groups
ethical challenges
risk + benefit (benefits should outweigh risks)
informed consent
confidentiality
power relations of researcher and participants
Pre - fieldwork
narrowing down a research question
Topic → narrower → focus → research question
the research question gives you your method
be SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, timely)
Types of questions
What -- purely descriptive questions
How -- process qs
Did -- retrospective qs
Why -- exploratory/motivational
Gatekeeper
control over key sources
seek permission
open + honesty
Observation goal
make the best record possible about what is occurring in order to answer a specific research q.
observe people, activities, things, interactions, built environment
Observation tools and methods
counting
mapping
tracing
photography
diary
test walks
looking for traces
visual methods
fieldnotes
what you see, hear, smell feel
sensory language to capture atmosphere and emotions
-descriptive writing
reflective writing
field notes types
daily diary
mental/head notes
jotted down
full notes
tape recorders
Grounded theory (Glaser + Strauss)
Theory emerges from the data
Iterative process (continuously improve)
data collection <->analysis /theory development
Participant observation
looking through eyes of your participants
+ understanding language
+ study the taken for granted
+ access hidden/private activities
+ link context
+ naturalistic
Unstructured interviews
little defined topics
open questions
similar to normal conversation
semi - structured interviews
topic guide
order is flexible
life history interview
respondent looks back at their whole life
oral history interview
respondent reflects on a particular event in the past
Asking questions
probing
specifying
direct
indirect
stricture
interpreting
silence
wording!
pros of audio recording
no distractions
corrects memory
detailed
benefits of an interview
issues that cannot be observed
reconstructing past
ethical considerations
less intrusive
broader scope
specific focus
Focus groups characteristics
small group discussion about a specific subject
4-8 participants
researcher = facilitator/moderator
interaction generates data
about 1,5h
Why Focus groups?
gathering experiencess and opinions about important issues
basis for development of a questionnaire
follow up of research - clarity
brings people together
data
not all researchers interpret data the same way
what is said are facts about behavior + opinions
subjective, authentic experiences
co - construction (how its told is important)
unstandardized methods
qualitative interview, ethnography, focus groups…
+ sensitizing concepts
+ flexible
+ rich, deep data
+ trustworthiness
+ small groups
+ contextual understanding
standardized methods
survey, standardized observation, physiological measurements
definitive concepts
focused, testable, valid
reliability, validity
large groups
generalization
Why standardized > undstandardized
more reliable
greater precision
suited for comparison
more accurate in ordering
Operationalizing
→ turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations
what do you want to measure an how
concept as meant → operationalization → concept as determined
Interview +
+ suits people with disabilities
+ possible to check where people understood
+ less missing values
+ higher response rate
+ more detailed
questionnaire +
anonymous
cheap + quick
less bias due to social desirability
self report biases
social desirability
yes/no sayers
logical error
central tendency
leniency bias
halo effect
social desirability bias
A distortion of data that is caused by respondents’ attempts to construct an account that conforms to a socially acceptable model of belief or behaviour
yes/no sayers (acquiescence)
participants having a tendency to either agree or disagree with statements?
solve by formulating the questions in different directions
logical error
participant thinks you mean the same thing with two statements
central tendency
participants tendency to fill out the middle/neutral options
leniency bias
personal connections affect decisions - how you see a person - how you might answer questions about them
halo effect
when you don’t know someone really well- first impression matters (can be good or bad)
setting
natural or contrived (situation especially designed for observing behavior)
field experiment - in between → naturalistic environment + manipulation
researcher
covert (not openly acknowledged) or overt (shown openly)
possible ethical problems? but no clear distinction
error variance
true variation = actual variation
error variance= variation due to error because of no training, missuses, social desirability bias
never 100% true variation
Intra - interviewer variablity
interviewer not consistent in their research
inter - interviewer variability
interviewers not consistent with each other
Intra observer variablity
observer does not code consistently
inter- observer variability
observers not consistent with each other
internal reliability
are items consistent with each other?
measure with cronbachs alpha
Inter rater reliability
are coders consistent with each other?
measure with cohens kappa
Test - retest reliability
do instruments show stability?
face validity
does the instrument seem to measure what it is supposed to?
Validity standardized measures
convergent
discriminant
predictive
concurrent
convergent validity
how closely the new instrument is related to other variables and other instruments of the same construct
discriminant validity
the extent to which a test is not related to other tests that measure different constructs
predictive validity
the ability of a test or other measurement to predict a future outcome
concurrent validity
shows you the extent of the agreement between two measures or assessments taken at the same time
quantitative data collection methods
structured interviewing
questionnaires
structured observation
ethnography/participant observation
qualitative interviews
focus groups
case study
a research design that entails detailed and intensive analysis of a single case - term sometimes extended to include the study of just two or three cases for comparative purposes
concept (grounded theory)
a key building block in the construction of a theory
constructionism
an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors
epistemology
a theory of knowledge - a stance on what should pass as acceptable knowledge
field notes
a detailed chronicle by an ethnographer of events, conversations,and behavior and the researchers initial reflections on them
focus group
a form of group interview in which there are several participants; emphasis in questioning on a particular tightly defined topic; emphasis on interaction within the group
generalization
concern with the external validity of research findings
grounded theory
an iterative approach to the analysis of qualitative data that aims to generate theory out of research data by achieving a close fit between the two
Inter coder reliability
the degree to which two or more individuals agree about the coding of an item
internal reliability
the degree to which the indicators that make up a scale are consistent
internal validity
a concern with the question of whether a finding that incorporates a causal relationship two or more variables is sound
interview guide
a rather vague term that is used to refer to the brief list of memory prompts of areas to be covered that is often employed in unstructured interviewing or to the somewhat more structured list of issues to be addressed or questions to be asked in a semi structured interview
interview schedule
a collection of questions designed to be asked by an interviewer - always used in structured interview
intra coder reliability
the degree to which an individual differs over time in the coding of an item
measurement validity
the degree to which a measure of a concept truly reflects that concept
objectivism
an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors
observation schedule
a device used in structured observation that specifies the categories of behavior that are to be observed and how behavior should be allocated to those categories