01 MIDTERMS || Ethical Relativism, Free Will, and Business Ethics

Ethical Relativism

Morality depends in cultural, historical, or personal circumstances

Moral Absolutism

Universal moral principles are applicable to all individuals m regardless of circumstances

ETHICAL RELATIVISM

• Argues that moral values are shaped by social, cultural, and individual perspectives

• What is considered right or wrong is subjective and can vary across different societies

1. Rejection of Universal Moral Standards

2. Cultural Determination of Ethics

3. Influence of Societal Norms and Context

MAIN FEATURES OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM

Rejection of Universal Moral Standards

• Ethical relativism denies the existence of objective, universally applicable moral principles

• No right or wrong

• Still depends on the society’s standards

Cultural Determination of Ethics

• Each culture or society establishes its ethical framework

• Cultural traditions dictate what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable within the group

Influence of Societal Norms and Context

• The norms, values, and historical contexts of a particular society shape moral judgments

• What is deemed ethical is influenced by the collective beliefs and practices of the community at a given time

1. Arranged Marriages

2. Dietary Practices

EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM

Arranged Marriages

• These are the norm in some cultures

• While in others, they are seen as violation of individual autonomy

Dietary Practices

• Some cultures prohibit eating certain animals (eg. cows in India and pork in Islamic countries)

• Whereas, others consume them regularly

1. Justification of Unethical Practices

2. Prevention of Moral Progress

3. Moral Inconsistency

CRITICISMS OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM

Justification of Unethical Practices

Ethical relativism can justify harmful or unethical practices (such as discrimination or human rights abuses) if they are culturally accepted

Prevention of Moral Progress

By asserting that all moral codes are equally valid, relativism discourages critical examination of harmful practices and hinders moral growth and societal progress

Moral Inconsistency

In multicultural societies, ethical relativism can lead to conflicting moral standards, making it difficult to resolve ethical disagreements (eg. debate)

MORAL ABSOLUTISM

Asserts that certain ethical principles are universal and unchanging, regardless of cultural or individual differences

1. Universal Moral Principles

2. Independence from Cultural Influence

3. Inherent Right and Wrong

MAIN FEATURES OF MORAL ABSOLUTISM

Universal Moral Principles

• Moral laws apply to all individuals equally, regardless of culture, period, or personal beliefs

• Right and wrong are objective and unchanging

Independence from Cultural Influence

• Ethical truths exist independently of societal norms or traditions

• Morality is not determined by cultural perspectives but is based on fixed principles that go beyond cultural beliefs and customs

Inherent Right and Wrong

Certain actions are inherently immoral, regardless of circumstances

1. Universal Human Rights

2. Murder is Wrong

EXAMPLES OF MORAL ABSOLUTISM

Universal Human Rights

Regardless of nationality or culture, all individuals have fundamental rights that should be upheld

Murder is Wrong

Regardless of context, taking another person’s life without justification is universally condemned

1. Lack of Flexibility

2. Difficulty in Resolving Moral Dilemmas

3. Interpretation Variation

CRITICISMS OF MORAL ABSOLUTISM

Lack of Flexibility

Moral absolutism can be rigid, ignoring cultural diversity and the complexity of human societies

Difficulty in Resolving Moral Dilemmas

It may not provide clear answers in situations where ethical principles conflict, such as balancing honesty with compassion

Interpretation Variation

Even if universal moral values exist, different cultures and individuals may interpret and apply them differently based on context

Ethnocentrism

• To compare your culture to others

• Thinking highly of your own culture

Xenocentrism

• To choose other culture over your own

• “XENO” means: foreign

Xenophobia

Phobia of other culture or people in general

Culture Assimilation

• Minority group adopts other religion’s practices

• Mostly religion with “high standards” win

• Example: conversion of religion

FREE WILL

It is the ability to make choices independently, without being entirely controlled by external forces or deterministic factors

1. Autonomy

2. Ethical Responsibility

3. Independence

MAIN FEATURES OF FREE WILL

Autonomy

Individuals have control over their decisions

Ethical Responsibility

• People can distinguish right from wrong

• Accountable for their choices

Independence

Biological or environmental factors don’t entirely determine human actions

1. Choosing a Career

2. Moral Choices

3. Personal Growth

4. Voting in Elections

EXAMPLES OF FREE WILL

Choosing a Career

Must be chosen based on interests and aspirations rather than being forced into a specific path

Moral Choices

Returning a lost wallet even though they could have kept the money

Personal Growth

• An individual works hard to overcome negative habits

• Demonstrates self-improvement through conscious effort

Voting in Elections

Citizens make independent political decisions without external coercion

1. External Influences

2. Neuroscience

3. Extreme Situations

CRITICISMS OF FREE WILL

External Influences

Decisions may still be influenced by genetics, upbringing, and societal norms

Neuroscience

Neuroscientific studies suggest that brain activity may determine choices before conscious awareness

Extreme Situations

• Free will may be limited in extreme situations

• Example: coercion or mental illness

MORAL RESPONSIBILITY

• It is the obligation to act in accordance with ethical principles and be accountable for one’s actions

• It means recognizing are how decisions affect others and accepting the consequences

• People are morally responsible when they can make choices and be held accountable for the results, whether good or bad

• It plays a key role in ethics, guiding behavior, and societal norms

1. Agency

2. Accountability

3. Intentionality

4. Awareness

5. Capacity

MAIN FEATURES OF MORAL RESPONSIBILITY

Agency

• Moral responsibility requires the ability to make choices

• Individuals must have control over their actions and the freedom to choose between different options

Accountability

People must be held accountable for the consequences of their actions, whether they were intentional or unintentional

Intentionality

• The individual’s intention behind an action is important in determining moral responsibility

• Actions done with deliberate intent carry more moral weight than those done accidentally

Awareness

A person must understand the potential consequences of their actions and be aware of the ethical implications before deciding

Capacity

• Moral responsibility assumes that the person is capable of understanding right from wrong

• Often considered in the context of age, mental health, or other factors that might impair decision-making

1. Helping a stranger in need

2. Apologizing for a mistake

3. Parenting

4. Environmental stewardship

EXAMPLES OF MORAL RESPONSIBILITY

Helping a stranger in need

• Choosing to help someone in distress

• Examples: assisting an injured person

• Involves a conscious decision to act with kindness and empathy

Apologizing for a mistake

If someone accidentally breaks another person's property, they are morally responsible for apologizing and taking steps to make amends

Parenting

Parents have the moral responsibility to raise their children, provide their needs, and teach them right from wrong

Environmental stewardship

A corporation that pollutes the environment has a moral responsibility to minimize harm to the planet and take actions to protect natural resources

1. Determinism

2. Moral Luck

3. Mental Health and Capacity

CRITICISMS OF MORAL RESPONSIBILITY

Determinism

• If actions are determined by prior causes:

  • Genetics

  • Upbringing

  • External influences

• Individuals may not have true moral responsibility, as their choices aren't fully free

Moral Luck

The idea that outcomes often depend on factors beyond a person's control challenges the fairness of assigning moral responsibility as two people may make the same decision but face different consequences

Mental Health and Capacity

Individuals with mental health conditions or diminished cognitive abilities may not be fully responsible for their actions, which raises ethical concerns about accountability

DETERMINISM

Suggests that all events. Including human actions, are caused by prior conditions and cannot occur otherwise

1. Causality of Actions

2. Shaping of Behavior

3. Questioning Free Will

MAIN FEATURES OF DETERMINISM

Causality of Actions

Every action is the result of preceding causes, which influence outcomes

Shaping of Behavior

A combination of biological, environmental, and social factors influences human behavior.

Questioning Free Will

Free will may be an illusion, as our choices are often shaped by past experiences and external influences, leaving little room for true autonomy

1. Genetic Influence

2. Psychological Trauma

EXAMPLES OF DETERMINISM

Genetic Influence

A person born into a family with a history of high intelligence may excel academically due to inherited traits and cognitive predispositions

Psychological Trauma

A child raised in an abusive household may develop trust issues and struggle with relationships or exhibit aggressive tendencies in adulthood

1. Moral Accountability

2. Complex Decision-Making

3. Capacity for Change

CRITICISMS OF DETERMINISM

Moral Accountability

If actions are determined by external forces or internal conditioning, it may undermine moral responsibility and accountability for one's actions

Complex Decision-Making

• Human decisions may not be purely determined

• May involve a blend of pre-existing influences and some degree of free will

Capacity for Change

• Research shows that individuals can adapt and alter their behaviors over time

• Suggests the possibility of overcoming deterministic influences through personal growth and intervention