PSCYHOLOGY CHILD TOPIC 1-6

Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) – Twin-Family Study of General IQ

What was the main aim of Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

To investigate the contributions of shared genetic and shared environmental influences on IQ variance and to explore reasons for spousal resemblance in intelligence

What was the sample in Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

112 families from the Netherlands twin registry each with two parents monozygotic or dizygotic twins and an extra sibling aged nine to fourteen all volunteers with no reported psychiatric problems or special educational needs

What was the method used by Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

Extended twin family design comparing intelligence test results of monozygotic twins dizygotic twins siblings and parents with biological data collected via cheek swab and intelligence measured using Raven’s Progressive Matrices SPM for children and APM for adults

How were the IQ tests administered in Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

Children completed the Raven’s SPM individually in separate rooms at their own pace after verbal instructions while parents completed the APM using written instructions both tests increased in difficulty and measured general intelligence

What psychometric model was used to analyse results in Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

The Rasch model which considers the difficulty of each question and calculates the probability of scoring high or low based on individual ability so IQ scores were independent of which items were answered

What were the main findings regarding genetic and environmental influences on IQ in Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

Correlations for IQ were higher in monozygotic twins than in siblings parents or dizygotic twins supporting a genetic basis for intelligence with genetics accounting for about sixty seven percent of intelligence and the remainder explained by random environmental factors

What did Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) find about spousal resemblance in IQ?

There was a significant correlation in IQ between couples suggesting that people tend to choose partners with similar intellectual ability supporting the idea of phenotypic assortment over social homogamy

What did Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) find about sex differences in IQ?

No statistically significant differences in IQ scores were found between males and females across all groups including parents twins and siblings

What did Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) find about the impact of environment on children with low IQ?

Environmental factors were more important for children genetically predisposed to low IQ showing that gene environment interaction can influence intelligence levels

What overall conclusions did Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) draw?

The main influence on IQ is genetic but genes interact with environmental factors in significant ways cultural transmission does not significantly influence IQ and phenotypic assortment explains spousal resemblance better than social homogamy

What are the strengths of Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

Large and detailed sample with extended twin family design allowed assessment of both heredity and cultural transmission use of the Rasch model improved accuracy of IQ measurement and testing conditions reduced pressure on participants

What are the limitations of Van Leeuwen et al. (2008)?

The sample was unrepresentative being limited to Dutch twin families so results cannot be confidently generalised to other populations with different ethnic or cultural backgrounds thus the study lacks population validity

How is Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) relevant to debates in psychology?

The study supports the nature side of the nature nurture debate by showing a strong genetic influence on intelligence but also provides evidence for gene environment interaction and addresses issues of assortative mating and cultural transmission

How could Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) be applied in real life?

Findings suggest that children genetically at risk for low IQ could benefit from intellectually stimulating environments and that understanding genetic and environmental contributions can help develop practical interventions to improve intelligence

Barkley-Levenson & Galván (2014) – Neural Representation of Expected Value in the Adolescent Brain

What was the main aim of Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

To investigate whether adolescents show greater neural and behavioral sensitivity to the expected value of rewards than adults and to clarify if adolescent risk-taking is due to brain development or simply less experience with money

What were the three main hypotheses in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

First adolescents would accept more gambles as expected value increased compared to adults second ventral striatum activation would increase more in adolescents than adults as expected value increased third adults who behaved like adolescents in gambling would not show the same hyperactive striatal activation

What was the research method in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

A quasi-experiment using an independent measures design conducted in a laboratory setting with fMRI scanning to measure brain activity during a monetary gambling task

What was the sample in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

Participants were adolescents and adults recruited from the community all right-handed with normal or corrected vision adolescents were aged thirteen to seventeen and adults were aged twenty five to thirty adults and adolescents were matched on gender and income

How was the gambling task structured in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

Participants viewed a series of gambles on a screen each gamble had a fifty percent chance of winning or losing with varying possible gains and losses they chose to accept or reject each gamble while their brain activity was measured using fMRI the expected value of each gamble was calculated as the average of possible outcomes weighted by their probabilities

What behavioral results were found in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

Adolescents were more likely than adults to accept gambles as expected value increased especially for gambles with high positive expected value both groups rarely accepted gambles with negative expected value showing both could avoid disadvantageous choices

What neural results were found in Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

fMRI data showed that ventral striatum activation in adolescents increased in proportion to the expected value of the gamble this effect was stronger in adolescents than adults and persisted even when groups were matched on income and gambling behavior adults who behaved like adolescents did not show the same neural activation pattern

What did the study show about the ventral striatum in adolescents?

The ventral striatum in adolescents was hyperactive in response to increasing expected value compared to adults suggesting a unique developmental stage in the adolescent reward system that is not simply due to valuing money more because of less experience or lower income

What conclusions did Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014) draw about adolescent risk taking?

Adolescents place greater value on rewards than adults and this is reflected both in their behavior and in heightened ventral striatum activation this neural sensitivity to expected value leads to increased risk-taking in situations where the potential reward is high but does not make adolescents less able to avoid bad risks

How did Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014) address the issue of income and experience with money?

The study controlled for income and matched groups on gambling behavior showing that differences in neural activation were not explained by experience or value of money but by developmental differences in the adolescent brain

What are the strengths of Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

The study used objective measures of brain activity with fMRI and a controlled gambling task it matched groups on key variables and addressed confounding factors such as income and experience with money the design allowed direct comparison of behavioral and neural responses to expected value

What are the limitations of Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014)?

The sample size was relatively small and limited to right-handed individuals with normal vision the artificial laboratory setting may not reflect real world risk-taking and the use of monetary rewards may not generalize to other types of risk

How is Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014) relevant to debates in psychology?

The study supports the view that adolescent risk-taking is linked to biological development of the brain specifically the reward system rather than just social or experiential factors it informs the nature versus nurture debate and has implications for understanding adolescent behavior

How can Barkley-Levenson and Galván (2014) be applied in real life?

The findings suggest that interventions to reduce risky behavior in adolescents should consider brain development and reward sensitivity for example policies like graduated driving licenses are justified by the biological evidence for heightened reward sensitivity in adolescence

Gibson and Walk (1960) – The Visual Cliff Experiment

What was the main aim of Gibson and Walk (1960)?

To investigate whether depth perception is innate or learned in human infants and young animals by examining their behavior on a visual cliff apparatus

What hypothesis did Gibson and Walk (1960) propose about depth perception?

They hypothesized that depth perception would be present as an innate ability in both human infants and other species that rely on vision for movement

How were human infants tested in Gibson and Walk (1960)?

Thirty six infants aged six to fourteen months all able to crawl were placed on the center board between the shallow and deep sides their mothers stood at the end of either side calling and encouraging them to crawl across the glass researchers recorded whether the infants would crawl onto the shallow side the deep side or refuse to cross

What were the main findings for human infants in Gibson and Walk (1960)?

Twenty seven out of thirty six infants readily crawled onto the shallow side but only three crawled onto the deep side despite the glass being solid many infants patted the glass over the deep side but hesitated or refused to cross showing they perceived the drop as dangerous

What additional observations were made about infant behavior in Gibson and Walk (1960)?

Some infants crawled partway onto the deep side but then retreated others cried when their mothers stood on the deep side because they wanted to reach their mother but would not cross the apparent drop

How did Gibson and Walk (1960) test animals on the visual cliff?

They tested several species including chicks lambs kids kittens rats and turtles at the age when each species first moved independently the animals were placed on the center board and could choose to move onto the shallow or deep side

What were the results for animals in Gibson and Walk (1960)?

Most species including chicks goats and lambs avoided the deep side from the first day they could move independently suggesting depth perception is present at or soon after birth in these species rats showed less avoidance possibly because they rely more on tactile cues than visual ones turtles showed the least avoidance of the deep side

What did Gibson and Walk (1960) conclude about the nature of depth perception?

Depth perception appears to be at least partly innate in humans and many animals as avoidance of the visual cliff is present without prior experience of real cliffs or drops

What did Gibson and Walk (1960) say about fear of heights?

While depth discrimination was present in infants and animals the experiment did not show that fear of heights is innate only that the ability to perceive depth exists early in development

What were the strengths of Gibson and Walk (1960)?

The visual cliff apparatus was safe and ethical allowing study of depth perception without risk of harm the procedure was standardized and could be replicated the inclusion of multiple species increased the generalizability of the findings

What were the limitations of Gibson and Walk (1960)?

The experiment could not determine the exact age at which depth perception first appears in humans as only crawling infants were tested and some species may rely on senses other than vision to navigate their environment

How is Gibson and Walk (1960) relevant to debates in psychology?

The study contributes to the nature versus nurture debate by providing evidence that depth perception is not solely learned from experience but has an innate basis in many species

How can Gibson and Walk (1960) be applied in real life?

Understanding that depth perception develops early can inform child safety practices and the design of environments for infants and young animals

Wood et al. (1976) – The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving

What was the main aim of Wood et al 1976?

To investigate how tutors help children solve problems they could not solve alone and to examine the process of scaffolding in learning

What was the main research question in Wood et al 1976?

Whether children of different ages respond differently to tutoring when faced with a problem solving task and how the tutor adapts support based on the child’s needs

What was the research method in Wood et al 1976?

Controlled observation using event sampling in a laboratory setting with each child working individually with a tutor for twenty to sixty minutes

What was the sample in Wood et al 1976?

Thirty children from the United States aged three four and five years with ten children in each age group all from similar socioeconomic backgrounds

What was the task given to children in Wood et al 1976?

Each child was given a set of twenty one wooden blocks of different shapes and sizes and asked to build a pyramid that matched a model made by the tutor using only certain blocks and specific construction rules

How did the tutor interact with the children in Wood et al 1976?

The tutor provided varying levels of help such as demonstrating how to join blocks correcting errors verbally instructing or physically placing blocks and gradually reduced assistance as the child showed more competence

What is scaffolding as described by Wood et al 1976?

Scaffolding is the process where a tutor provides temporary support to help a learner achieve a task they could not do alone with support being gradually withdrawn as the learner becomes more capable

What are the six functions of scaffolding identified by Wood et al 1976?

Recruitment which is engaging the child’s interest reduction in degrees of freedom which is simplifying the task direction maintenance which is keeping the child focused marking critical features which is highlighting important aspects frustration control which is reducing stress and demonstration which is showing how to do the task

What were the main findings about age differences in Wood et al 1976?

Three year olds rarely completed the task and needed frequent direct intervention four year olds could complete the task with some help and five year olds often completed the task with little or no help showing that older children needed less scaffolding

What did Wood et al 1976 find about the effectiveness of scaffolding?

Effective scaffolding involved the tutor adjusting the level of help to match the child’s current ability and success was highest when the tutor’s support was contingent on the child’s performance

What is the recognition production gap described by Wood et al 1976?

The gap between a child’s ability to recognize the goal of a task and their ability to produce the actions needed to achieve it which scaffolding helps to bridge

What conclusions did Wood et al 1976 draw about learning and development?

Learning is most effective when support is tailored to the learner’s needs and gradually withdrawn as competence increases collaborative learning and scaffolding involve both nature and nurture

What are the strengths of Wood et al 1976?

The study provided detailed observation of real interactions used a clear and replicable task and introduced the influential concept of scaffolding which has been widely applied in education

What are the limitations of Wood et al 1976?

The artificial laboratory setting may not reflect real world learning the sample was small and not diverse and the task may not generalize to other types of problem solving

How does Wood et al 1976 relate to debates in psychology?

The study supports the interaction of nature and nurture in cognitive development and shows how individual differences and social context influence learning

How can Wood et al 1976 be applied in real life?

The findings inform educational practice by showing that effective teaching involves providing the right amount of support and gradually encouraging independent problem solving

Ainsworth & Bell (1970) – The Strange Situation

What was the main aim of Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

To investigate the nature of attachment behaviors in infants and to identify different styles of attachment by observing how infants respond to separations and reunions with their caregiver in a controlled setting

What was the research method in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Controlled observation using a structured procedure known as the Strange Situation where infants and their mothers were observed through a one way mirror in a laboratory environment

What was the sample in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Around one hundred middle class American infants aged twelve to eighteen months and their mothers all family reared and mostly white recruited through pediatricians in private practice

What was the setting and apparatus in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

The experiment took place in a small room divided into squares for recording movement with toys at one end and chairs for the mother and stranger at the other end the room had a one way mirror so observers could watch without being seen

How long did the Strange Situation procedure last in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

The procedure consisted of eight episodes each lasting about three minutes for a total observation time of around twenty to twenty four minutes

What were the eight episodes of the Strange Situation in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Episode one mother and infant introduced to the room episode two mother and infant alone mother does not participate while infant explores episode three stranger enters converses with mother then approaches infant mother leaves episode four first separation infant alone with stranger episode five first reunion mother returns and comforts infant stranger leaves episode six second separation infant left alone episode seven stranger returns episode eight second reunion mother returns and stranger leaves

What four key behaviors were observed in the Strange Situation?

Willingness to explore separation anxiety stranger anxiety and reunion behavior with the caregiver

How were behaviors recorded in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Observers noted the intensity of each behavior on a scale from one to seven for each episode focusing on exploration proximity seeking avoidance and resistance

What is secure attachment as identified by Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Securely attached infants used the mother as a secure base to explore showed moderate distress on separation were wary but not overly distressed by the stranger and were easily comforted on reunion with the mother

What is insecure avoidant attachment as identified by Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Insecure avoidant infants showed little distress when the mother left avoided contact on reunion and were not strongly affected by the presence of the stranger

What is insecure resistant or ambivalent attachment as identified by Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

Insecure resistant infants were very distressed by separation showed high stranger anxiety and on reunion sought contact but also resisted being comforted often showing anger or ambivalence toward the mother

What were the proportions of attachment types found in Ainsworth and Bell 1970?

About sixty five percent of infants were securely attached twenty percent were insecure avoidant and fifteen percent were insecure resistant or ambivalent

What did Ainsworth and Bell 1970 conclude about attachment?

Attachment style is the result of early interactions with the caregiver and can be reliably observed through the Strange Situation procedure the mother’s sensitivity and responsiveness to the infant’s needs is a key factor in the development of secure attachment

What later category was added by other researchers to Ainsworth and Bell’s classification?

Disorganized attachment was later identified by Main and Solomon for infants who showed inconsistent or confused behaviors not fitting the other categories