rome

Libertini (freedmen)

The libertini, or freedmen, were former slaves in ancient Rome who had been granted their freedom, either by their masters or by purchasing it themselves. While they gained personal liberty and some legal rights, they did not enjoy all the privileges of full Roman citizens. Freedmen became an increasingly important social group, especially during the late Republic and the early Empire, contributing to Rome's economy as mainly merchants. They often maintained a formal relationship with their former masters, known as patronus, to whom they owed loyalty and certain obligations. The libertini were particularly significant because their rise illustrates power structures and the difficulty of gaining citizenship in Roman society. By the early Imperial period, the growing number of freedmen blurred class lines and helped reshape Roman concepts of citizenship, status, and labor.

St. Jerome

A Christian Scholar who lived from 347 AD to 420 AD. He studied in Rome and was fluent in Latin and Greek. He wrote accounts during the Fall of Rome and wrote many letters that would become important for Christian scholars later on. Jerome is important as his first-hand account would be far more accurate than most Roman scholars, as many of them were writing about events that had happened hundreds of years before they were even alive. His accounts also allow us to compare the accounts of other scholars from that time.

Humiliores

The term "Humiliores" refers to lower class citizens in late 2nd Century Rome and is particularly relevant after Caracalla implemented "Constitutio Antoniniana" in 212 CE which gave all those in the Roman Empire citizenship aparat from slaves. Humiliores included citizens, freedmen, and free non-citizens. Humiliores directly contrasted "Honestiores", which referred to those with higher social status such as senators and other high officials. This social division was often reflected in Roman law with Honestiores receiving more lenient punishments for crimes along with other social and legal benefits not offered to Humiliores. The distinction between the two social groups is significant to our understanding of Rome during the early 3rd Century seeing as local courts were eliminated and despite the seeming equality of citizens, there was still great social disparity among the upper and lower classes of the empire.

Notitia Dignitatum:

The Notitia Dignitatum is a late Roman (Byzantine) imperial document from the 4th to early 5th century CE that outlines and greatly expands the civil and the military administration across the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. It lists multiple officials by title and rank in locations across the empire, providing insight into the hierarchy of regional governors, court offices, and the locations of elite military units. It one of the most valuable surviving records for understanding how the late Roman state functioned on paper revealing the complexity and fragmentation of imperial governance.

Constitutio Antoniniana, 212

The constitutio Antoniniana was implemented in 212 CE by Caracalla (otherwise known as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), granting Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire. This declaration excluded freed slaves and those who surrendered to Rome in war, known as "dediticii". Some of the possible reasons behind Caracalla enacting the constitutio Antoniniana was to extract the advantages to Rome of having more citizens from the provinces. By extending citizenship to Roman provinces outside of Rome, Italy, more taxes could be collected since citizens had to pay taxes. Also, it increased the number of people who could serve as legionaries in the Roman army since only Roman citizens were eligible to do so.

Term: Josephus

Flavius Josephus (37-c. 100 CE) was an Jewish aristocrat, military leader, and Roman-Jewish Historian. He was a general in the Jewish rebel army in Galilee during the Great Revolt. He surrendered instead of following the suicide pact and became an advisor to the Romans. Josephus would join Vespasian in Rome and later become a Roman citizen. His most famous writings are The Jewish War, Antiquities of the Jews, Against Apion, and Life of Josephus.

The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312)

-Fought between Constantine 1 and Maxentius in October, 312.-caused by the rivalries between members of the Tetrarchy with Constantine being backed by Constantius's (his father) troops after his death while Maxentius was supported more locally in Rome. -Fought on the Milvian Bridge that goes over the Tiber.-Ended with Constantine's victory over Maxentius and led to Constantine becoming the ruler of the Empire.-According to later Christian accounts, this battle was the start of Constantine's conversion to Christianity after he and the soldiers had a vision from the Christian god.

"Year of the Four Emperors"

took place in 69 CE in Rome, Italy, and occurred when Rome was in search of a replacement for Emperor Nero which reigned from 54-68 CE, since he had not successor to hand down the throne to. The four possible contendors for the throne in 69 CE ended up being Gaius Julius Vindex, Servius Sulpicus Galba, Marcus Salvius Otho, and Aulus Vitellius. Vindex was not considered fit for the role of Emperor and Galba ruled for only a few months directly following Nero's death before he was overthrown, then Otho committed suicide after he and Vitellius fought for the vacant throne, Otho losing and out of shame took his own life, leaving Vitellius the new emperor. The year was considered very messy in terms of political instatement since each man in the running either died, or were not favored to take over the Empire, either by the Roman troops, senate, or the Roman people, all of which having their own powers of opinion. It's a significant part of Ancient Roman history and in turn, our understanding of such since it provided insight into how Rome handled emergencies in which they had not backup Emperor, and how the political system worked to rectify the instability of the lack of a proper ruler.Vindex was a Gallic noble Galba was an aristocrat from Spain who had the support of the senate while Ortho was an Etruscan from Spain who originally wanted to be Galba's successor. Vitellius had support from Germany, specifically the legions which is a main reason he was able to defeat Ortho in battle.

Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard is an organization that serves as both an elite police force and personal guard of the emperor of Rome. They existed during the days of the Roman Republic, but only as an escort for various military officers. Emperor Augustus dramatically altered them 27 BCE by Emperor Augustus, they were permanently stationed within Rome to protect anyone on the throne and defend the city from threats whether internal or external. Although they fulfilled these roles to some extent until they were disbanded by Constatine in 312 CE, they had a reputation for their role in the ritual of succession, often through assassinating Roman emperors they disagreed with. The first example of this was Caligula as of 41 CE, and the same men that killed him then knelt before Claudius and designated him as emperor. They were significant because the extent to which they protected Rome meant that an emperor held power only as long as he was supported by his military, which included the Praetorian Guard.

Sol Invictus

Sol Invictus, meaning "Unconquered Sun," was a solar deity officially elevated to supreme status by the Roman emperor Aurelian in 274 CE, during the Crisis of the Third Century. This was a period of profound instability marked by civil war, economic collapse, and external threats. Seeking to restore unity and stability, Aurelian established Sol Invictus as the chief god of the Roman Empire, building a grand temple in Rome and instituting official games (ludi Solis) in his honor. Drawing heavily from the Syrian solar deity Elagabal, Sol Invictus reflected a fusion of Eastern and Roman religious traditions, emphasizing divine order, cosmic power, and imperial authority. This state-sponsored cult emerged alongside the broader popularity of mystery cults, which promised salvation, secret knowledge, and protection in the afterlife, similar to the cult of Demeter and Persephone in Greece. Under later emperors, especially Constantine the Great, Sol Invictus retained political and symbolic power. Before embracing Christianity, Constantine continued to issue coins bearing Sol's image and inscriptions like "Sol Invictus Comiti" ("to my companion, the Unconquered Sun"), reflecting the idea that the emperor ruled with the favor of a supreme, singular god. During a time when the empire was fragmented by religious plurality and internal divisions, the worship of Sol Invictus offered a model for religious unity through monotheistic or henotheistic worship, which paved the way for Constantine's eventual conversion to Christianity. The celebration of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti on December 25th, marking the sun's rebirth after the winter solstice, was later adopted into the Christian calendar as the birthdate of Christ.

Ara Pacis

The Ara Pacis (dedicated 13 BC) was an altar commissioned by the emperor Augustus to the personification of Peace. In order to show the absoluteness of Pax Romana (Roman Peace), the emperor placed this altar in the Campus Martius, the army's camp named after the god of war, Mars. There are many reliefs on this monument that are used as propaganda and for religious or symbolic reasons. On the outside next to the doors, Romulus and Remus as infants are held by what might be the personification of peace, Pax. Another relief on this part is Aeneas, the legendary Trojan ancestor of Romulus and Remus landing on the coast of Italy and sacrificing in the name of the gods. Along with the reliefs, there are also carved acanthus plants, a very common Italian plant, like on the tops of the Corinthian columns. On the sides of the Ara Pacis, the procession of the imperial family to dedicate the altar. Contrary to most depictions of this kind and all art of this time in general, there are children in the crowd as a propaganda message in order to increase the birth rate of the Patricians. Carved and stucco garlands adorn the inside of the altar as well as a table for sacrifices. All over the altar, there are Greek keys, motifs of Greek art, which shows the appreciation of Greek culture.

Pontius Pilate

Pontius Pilate was the Roman prefect (governor) of the province of Judaea from around AD 26 to 36, serving under Emperor Tiberius and based at Caesarea Maritima, though his most famous moment came in Jerusalem when he presided over the trial and crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. We learn about him not only from the four New Testament Gospels but also from Jewish historian Josephus, Philo of Alexandria, and the archaeological "Pilate Stone" unearthed at Caesarea in 1961. Pilate's actions reveal a lot about how Rome managed its eastern provinces, balancing imperial law, local customs, and restless populations. His role in the Passion narrative has made him a pivotal figure for understanding both Roman provincial administration and the early cultural and religious tensions that shaped Judaism and nascent Christianity in the first century.

Nero (54-68 CE)

Nero was the fifth Roman Emperor, the stepson and successor of Claudius. His mother was Julia Agrippina, Augustus's great-granddaughter. Julia Agrippina persuaded Claudius to favor Nero as his successor over his legitimate son Britannicus because of her desire to bring her son to power. The Praetorian guard declared Nero emperor at the age of 17 after the death of Claudius in 54 and Britannicus in 55. He would later have his mother killed in 59 CE because he feared her influence and control. His early reign was mostly peaceful and stable. He ended secret trials, banned capital punishment, reduced taxes, gave the senate more leniency, and allowed slaves to bring civil complaints against their masters. Nero's old tutor, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, had a major influence on him, pushing him to care more about the people and the welfare of Rome. His behavior started to shift to tyrannical and controlling as his rule progressed. The Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE destroyed a significant amount of the city. Nero was accused, but there is no proof of this, and he ultimately blamed Christians for the fire. There were not many Christians in this period of Rome, and they were not widely accepted, so they were an easy target for Nero. He began to persecute and execute Christians brutally. He also began to reconstruct Rome in his own desired image, damaging his reputation. A revolt spread in the Northern territories, and Nero was eventually declared a public enemy by the Senate. He fled Rome and committed suicide, leaving no heir and pushing Rome into a state of Civil War.

Julian "The Apostate"

The nephew of Constantine (who wasn't murdered like the other nephews) who ruled as emperor from 361 to 363. He grew up a Christian but later left the church. He was the last pagan emperor of Rome with a strong interest in Greek philosophy. Tried to limit the control and power of the Christian church, passed a law that prohibited Christians from being philosophers. Was eventually killed during conflict with the Sasanian Empire, brining an end to the Constantinian dynasty. Less than 40 years after his death Christianity would be made the official religion of the Roman empire.

Stoicism

Roman Stoicism emerged from the Roman interpretation of Greek stoicism and helped to promote being self-controlled and not being ruled by desire. these ideas helped pave the way for the emergence of Christianity in the Roman empire. It was introduced to Rome by Cicero in the 2nd century. Roman Stoicism was directed toward ethics and psychology and did not have definitive religious beliefs thus it could be applied to ones life with any mixture of gods. Two famous Roman Stoics are Marcus Aurelius and Seneca. Marcus Aurelius was the emperor, and Seneca was an advisor and statesman. Stoicism was about control of ones life, aiming for a life practicing the four cardinal virtues in everyday life, prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice. Marcus Aurelius wrote about stoicism during his time as emperor and his interpretation of it in his Meditations which gave good insight into his thoughts about being an emperor and how he thought the Roman empire should look. It declined in followers as Christianity rose in popularity and especially after it became the state religion in the fourth century.

Damnatio memoriae

Damnatio memoriae was a Roman practice meaning "damnation of memory" in Latin. It was a practice used by the senate or succeeding rulers to officially erase someone from history, usually after they died. This happened mostly during the Roman Empire, after the first century CE. The government would order that a person's name be removed from inscriptions and public records, their face scratched off of statues, and any memory of them basically destroyed. One famous example is co-emperor Geta, who was killed by his brother Caracalla in 211 CE. After Geta's death, Caracalla had his name and images removed from everything, including paintings, coins, and even family portraits. More examples include the emperors Caligula and Domitian, whose names were also scrubbed from official records and essentially forgotten after their respective assassinations. Damnatio memoriae is important because it shows how much control Roman leaders had over history and memory. Instead of just defeating their enemies, they tried to make it look like those people never even existed. It tells us a lot about power, politics, and how people in the Roman Empire tried to shape the past to control the future.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was a clash between the Roman army under the command of Publius Varus against Germanic Tribal forces led by Arminius, the son of a Germanic chief who had spent his early years in Rome as a political hostage. The battle took place in the year 9 CE, during Augustus's time as Princeps, during an attempt to push the borders of Rome further into the Germanic interior. The event takes its name from the modern German forest in which it is approximated to have occurred. The battle was a crushing defeat, seeing 3 legions, around 15,000 men and an estimated 10% of Romes army at that time, utterly annihilated. This event highlights the fallibility of Roman military might, how even the power that was then in control of much of the known world at the time could be undermined by poor planning and strategic thinking.

Tetrarchy

The Tetrarchy was an idea put forth by Diocletian. It's a system where there are 2 Augusti who chose the next 2 Caesars. Once the Augusti retire, the previous Caesars are promoted to Augusti and chose the new Caesars. The idea was this was to promote stability by having multiple leaders to take care of the vast expanse of the empire while also not being hostile to each other. However, when Diocletian retired, he made Maximian retire too. This in itself may have been fine but Diocletian didn't follow the rules he had set. Instead, he appointed the 2 new Caesars, which greatly upset the new Augustii. This, plus the idea of succession by family, lead to the Tetrarchy being dissolved fairly quickly. There was too much infighting that it was extremely unstable after Diocletian retired.

Gaius Caligula

Caligula reigned after Tiberius from 37-41 CE. Originally, he was meant to co-rule with the grandson of Tiberius, but he executed him. He had attempted to consolidate control of the army and wanted to expand Rome into Britain, and during his reign he turned paranoid and cruel. This may be attributed to a medical condition. He put an end to the treason trials that took place under the rule of Tiberius. He began to despise the Senate and went as far as to claim his status as divinity while he was still alive. Eventually, he loses the support of the army and gets killed by the Praetorian Guard. He is a significant part of Roman history because he is wholly demonstrative of the lack of checks on the powers of the Emperor and is a prime example of abuse of power. While he was named co-heir with Tiberius Gemellus (Tiberius' grandson), Caligula was backed more strongly by the Praetorian Guard and quickly consolidated power after Tiberius' death, later accusing Gemellus of treason and having him executed. Though Caligula expressed interest in expanding into Britain, the campaign never materialized; ancient sources even mock him for instructing his soldiers to collect seashells as supposed "spoils of war." One of the most significant aspects of his reign was his unprecedented claim to divinity while still alive. He demanded worship, equated himself with gods like Jupiter, and even attempted to place his statue in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, which caused serious unrest. Ultimately, his growing hostility toward the Senate and key military figures led to his assassination by the Praetorian Guard in 41 CE, the first time an emperor was killed by his own protectors. His reign is indeed a powerful example of the dangers of unchecked imperial authority in early Roman Empire history.

Domitian (81-96 CE)

Domitian was the younger brother of Titus, and when Titus died in 81 CE, Domitian succeeded him as emperor. Early in his reign, he enjoyed the support of the Senate and worked to strengthen the economy, reform the coinage, and expand the empire's borders. However, as time went on, his rule became increasingly autocratic. He demanded to be addressed as Dominus et Deus ("Lord and God"), which alienated both the Senate and the people.

Domitian grew more paranoid and oppressive, especially toward the end of his reign, executing senators and perceived enemies. His unpopularity ultimately led to his assassination in 96 CE in a palace conspiracy. After his death, the Senate enacted the practice of damnatio memoriae—a formal condemnation meant to erase him from Roman history. Statues were destroyed or defaced, inscriptions were chiseled out, and his name was omitted from official records. Although largely symbolic by that point, the Senate's decision to condemn Domitian gave them a brief moment of moral or political assertion in an era when their real power had greatly diminished. His death marked the end of the Flavian dynasty.

Isis

Isis is the Egyptian goddess of healing and magic. Her name is also the Greek form of the ancient Egyptian word for throne. She is the sister and wife to the god Osiris, the ruler of the underworld. She is also the mother to the god Horus, the protector of the pharaoh. Devotees of her believed that she had powerful magical abilities and was even able to revive the dead. In Egyptian mythology, she once healed her husband Osiris after his brother Seth, had dismembered him. With the addition of Egypt to the Roman Empire, religious beliefs mixed together and Isis was eventually worshipped by both the Egyptians and the Romans. She plays a prominent role in the story The Golden Ass, where she offers the protagonist Lucius the chance to transform back into human in exchange for him joining her cult. Lucius accepts her offer and becomes a devotee of Isis. Isis was also known to be more benevolent than the Roman gods which is shown by her treatment of Lucius in The Golden Ass. She didn't get jealous of mortals or punish them. Instead she was benevolent towards humans. She would cure the sick, protect the dead, and offer guidance for both the living and the dead. t existed even during the time of Augustus, and Tiberius was highly disapproving of it. Caligula, however, legitimized it, allowing for a building of the Temple of Isis. Many future Emperors had relatively positive feelings about it and at the very least tolerated its existence. Her presence in Rome demonstrates syncretism, or the intermingling of religions within different cultures.

Theodosius I "the Great"

Theodosius I "the Great" (347-395 AD), born in Hispania and reigning as Roman Emperor from 379 until his death in 395, was a pivotal figure in the late Roman history who not only became the last emperor tgo rule both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires but also fundamentally transformed the religious landscape of Europe by declaring NIcene Christianity the offical state religion through the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, suppressing pagan practices and heretical sects, strengthening the power of the churchm, solidifying imperial support for Christian orthodoxy, and setting in motion the eventual Christianiztion of the entire European continetn while simultaneously managing a turbulent empire facing Gothic invastions, internal civil war like the confllict against the usper Magnus Maximus, and an increasingly fragile imperial unity that would finally collapse into two permanently divided realms after his death, making him one of the most consequential emperors in both Roman political and religious history.In addition to his role in making Nicene Christianity the official state religion, Theodosius I also took decisive steps to enforce religious uniformity by closing pagan temples, banning sacrifices, and issuing laws against heretical Christian groups, such as the Arians. His reign also saw significant military and political challenges, including negotiating with Gothic tribes after the disastrous Battle of Adrianople (378) and eventually settling some of them as "foederati" (tribes or groups bound by treaty to the Roman Empire) within the empire, an important shift in Roman military policy. Furthermore, his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, inherited the Eastern and Western halves of the empire respectively, institutionalizing the East-West split that would shape the future of Europe

Diocletian (284-305)

Diocletian, according to Boatwright, was most likely a freedman or the son of a freedman and born in Illyricum. Before becoming emperor, he served in several military units, namely the protectores, who were the elite imperial guard for the emperor. Once he ascended to the role of emperor, he made moves to battle against his predecessor's brother, Carinus, who was still the ruler of the Western Roman Empire. Although this failed, Carinus was assassinated by his men, leaving the empire solely in the hands of Diocletian. Although the empire was exclusively his, he knew that it was too big to be controlled by one man, so in 285, he appointed one of his close friends as co-emperor, Maximian. After several back-and-forth campaigns to assist one another, Diocletian realized again that only two emperors was not enough to maintain the peace and growth of the massive Roman Empire. They assigned two junior-level emperors to help them. Diocletian named himself and Maximian as "Augustus." Diocletian appointed a partner for himself in the East, Galerius Valerius Maximianus as his junior "Caesar," and Maximian appointed Flavius Valerius Constantius (Constantine's dad) as his junior "Caesar" in the West. This new four-man system of rulers became known as the tetrarchy and worked amazingly well at keeping order amongst the inhabitants of the vast empire. While Diocletian was brutal to Christians in the Eastern empire, his counterpart Constantius in the West looked more favorable on the Christian faith and its followers. Diocletian continued his persecution, but it did not have the effect he wanted. It encouraged Christian followers to become more resistant, and they looked at martyrdom as a badge of honor. This was known as the Great Persecution. In 305, Diocletian abdicated his power and entered into retirement.

Livia

Livia Druscilla was born in Rome in 58 BC and died in 29 AD. She was married to another man when she caught the attention of political leader Octavian, Caesar's adopted son and heir. He displayed a great deal of power by arranging her divorce and subsequent remarriage to him in 38 BC. She brought with her two sons from her previous marriage: Tiberius and Drusus. When Octavian was named Augustus and made the first Roman emperor in 27 BC, Livia became the first Roman empress. She wielded considerable influence as her husband's confidant and council, and advocated for her son Tiberius when the question of succession arose. She is also speculated to have had a hand in the deaths of many young Julio-Claudian men in her quest to see Tiberius put on the throne. Her marriage to Augustus was a childless one, and both her son Drusus and the sons of Julia (Augustus' daughter from his first marriage) died relatively young. So, when Augustus died in 14 AD, his only remaining choice for succession-though not his first choice by far-was Tiberius. Augustus also ensured Livia's security by posthumously adopting her, resulting in her being known as Julia Augusta. Following Tiberius' ascension, he and his mother would have a falling out, though Livia continued to wield considerable influence until her death in 29 AD. Throughout her life Livia accumulated unprecedented power for a Roman woman, serving as wife of the first Roman emperor and mother of the second. She helped shape Rome during its transition from Republic to Empire, and can be considered the mother of its first dynasty line: the Julio-Claudians (named after the family lines of Augustus and Tiberius). She also played a large role in the posthumous deification of Augustus, and would eventually be deified herself by her grandson Claudius.

Trajan and Hadrian

Trajan and Hadrian were two of the most celebrated emperors of the Roman Empire, both reigning during the 2nd century CE. Trajan ruled from 98 to 117 CE, and is remembered for his military conquests, particularly the Dacian Wars, which expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. Trajan also undertook significant infrastructure projects, including the construction of Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Column, which commemorated his victory in Dacia. His reign marked the peak of Roman imperial power.

Hadrian, who reigned from 117 to 138 CE, succeeded Trajan and is perhaps best known for consolidating the empire's borders, most notably through the construction of Hadrian's Wall in Britain, which marked the northern frontier of Roman Britain. Unlike Trajan, Hadrian focused more on preserving the empire's stability rather than expanding it, fostering a period of relative peace and prosperity. He was also a patron of the arts and culture, commissioning architectural projects like the Pantheon in Rome, which remains a marvel of Roman engineering.

Both emperors were significant because their reigns were marked by a combination of military strength, architectural achievement, and a shift towards consolidating and preserving the empire rather than further expansion, showing the evolving priorities of the Roman imperial leadership.Emperor Trajan also instituted a trend of the adoption of an heir rather than dynastic succession. Hadrian continued this trend and even chose the successor for his successor before he died to hopefully continue this further. I would also like to add that Hadrian was not just a patron of the arts and culture, he was extremely interested in specifically Greek culture and did not spend very much time in Rome until his lover, Antinous, died.

Hadrian's Villa

Hadrian's Villa or Villa Adriana in the original Latin is a sprawling villa complex located 19 miles northeast of Rome, was a sprawling palatial complex that was twice the size of the ruins of Pompeii, approximately 297 acres, and composed of dozens of buildings that were influenced by the numerous cultures that composed the Empire. Constructed between 117/118 CE to 138 CE, it was a continually developed piece of infrastructure during Hadrian's reign. Hadrian's villa is speculated to have been formerly a Republican-era villa owned by his wife's family. The most striking element of Hadrian's villa is the architectural influences that permeate. Taking from his journey across the Empire, there is heavy Greek, Egyptian, Imperial Roman, with Syrian and Alexandrian (Egyptian Hellenistic) architectural influence across the villa. It was Hadrian's pet project, and reflected his tastes and admiration for the cultures that he saw in the Empire. The villa is a microcosm of the wider Roman Empire, a state composed of dozens of people and cultures under the direction of an Imperator, Hadrian.

Commodus (161-192)

Commodus was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 177 to 192, he was the son of the philosopher emperor Marcus Aurelius, who eventually became a co-emperor with his father until Marcus Aurelius died in 180, which left his son to be the sole ruler of the empire. His military accomplishments have successfully ended the war against the Germanic tribes on the Danube frontier in the Marcomannic Wars by negotiating a peace treaty to limit further aggression on both sides with a diplomatic approach. Once Commodus returned to Rome, he had a strong desire to fight in the Gladiatorial Arena: The Colosseum. He is well known to be the only Roman emperor to fight as a gladiator, participating in 735 battles as he proceeded to endure the fighting as his initial hobby. However, this caused great controversy in the Senate, and Commodus should have been more responsible in tracking any issues affecting the Empire. He neglected those orders, which resulted in serious consequences such as losing popularity from the people and the reputation alongside the government, especially with the Praetorian Guards. Commodus was also known to be a ruthless emperor. One incident took place in 182, when his sister Lucilla, along with Praetorian Prefects attempted to assassinate Commodus. The plan failed due to a high security alert protecting the Emperor, which led to Lucilla and her allies being executed for treason Setting the infamy to increase by the Praetorian guards conducting further threats to the Emperor. At the end of Commodus' reign in 192, he was assassinated by a wrestler named Narcissus by strangling him to death due to the atrocities of tyrannical rule and constant madness towards his own people. The aftermath concluded the Nerva-Antonine dynasty,

Edict of Milan (313)

The Edict of Milan was an decree issued in 313 CE by the Roman emperors Constantine I in the West and Licinius in the East, following their meeting in Milan. By allowing religious tolerance across the empire specifically, legalization of Christianity, which had faced periods of persecution, particularly under emperors, it represented an important event in Roman history. Christian historian Lactantius documented the edict's terms, despite the fact that the actual text has been lost. This law, which was issued under the Roman Empire, gave Christians the freedom to worship in public, recover property that had been taken from them, and start building churches without worrying about facing consequences. It ended funded by the state persecution and set the way for the long-term Christianization of the empire, but it did not declare Christianity the official religion of Rome. Constantine's changing political approach and the changing religious scene of Late Antiquity are captured in the Edict, which connects him with a Christian population that is growing more powerful. It marks an event in both the general cultural transition from pagan traditions to a Christian dominated culture and the evolution of Roman policies.

The Jewish War (66-74 CE)

The Jewish War, also known as the First Jewish-Roman War, was a major rebellion by the Jews of Judea against Roman rule. It was a brutal and devastating conflict that ultimately led tot he destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem and a significant shift in Jewish history. It all began with the Jewish rebels, initally led by the Zealots, engaged in a surprise attack on the Roman garrison in Jerusalem and was the demise of many Roman soldiers. The response by the Romans was led by General Cestius Gallus who attempted to retake Jerusalem but failed and was forced to retreat. This boosted rebel morale into them believing they had a chance to overthrow Roman rule. In 67-69 CE the Roman countermeasure was implemented by Emperor Nero who appointed Vespasian to destroy the rebellion. With his son Titus, Vespasian strategically retook Galilee and other parts of Judea. In 70 CE the destruction of Jerusalem took place. Titus attacked during a religious holiday to take them by surprise. After several months of brutal fighting and starvation, the second temple was destroyed. Thousands were killed, enslaved, or fled. Finally, from 73-74 CE the last holdouts of the rebellion, most likely Sicarii Zealots, fortified themselves at Masada which is a mountain fortress. The Romans, led under Lucius Flavius Silva, built a massive ramp to breach the fortress. According to Josephus, the remaining rebels chose mass suicide over surrender.

Septimius Severus (145-211)

He rose to power after the civil war ended. This was following the assassination of Emperor Pertinax. Severus was from a Punic North African background and hailed from the province of Africa. Leptis gave its role a unique influence on another empire from the eastern and western provinces. Severus's reign marked a shift towards the military and gave more strength to the Roman army. This started through the militarization of imperial politics. And began playing a crucial role. Severus' death in 211 CE led to a rule with his sons. Carus and Geta, and after severe illness, they struggled with the family's complex power struggles over certain things.A few things to add/note. Septimius Severus was the Emperor from 193-211 C.E. He was apart of the Severan Dynasty. He was the Emperor after Didius Jilianus. You are correct in highlighting "the assassination of Emperor Pertinax'" (Babcock). However, Pertinax reigned from January 1, 193 C.E. until March 28, 193 C.E. After Pertinax, Didius Jilianus was the Emperor from March 28, 193 until June 193 C.E. Then, Septimius Severus was the Emperor from 193-211 C.E. He was not a good Emperor, yet he has an arch dedicated to him: The Arch of Septimius Severus. Finally, his sons, Caracalla and Geta were Emperors after him. However, Caracalla killed his brother, Geta, in his mother's arms. Geta was Emperor from 211-212, and Caracalla was Emperor from 211-217.

Ultimately, Septimius Severus leaves a lasting legacy on the Severan Dynasty.

Antoninus Pius (138-161)

Antoninus Pius was the adopted son and successor of the Emperor Hadrian and held power from 138 CE until his death in 161 CE. The transition from Hadrian to Antoninus was relatively smooth and his reign was one of considerable peace with very little military unrest. To deal with the minimal unrest, Antoninus proposed expansion northward and constructed a wall resembling Hadrian's just north of it. However the wall would be abandoned a few decades later as it was located too far north for the Romans to successfully uphold. He is known for building the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina which was originally constructed to honor his deified wife, Faustina the Elder. Although following his death in 161 CE the Senate voted to deify him by universal consent and the temple was rededicated to the both of them. Following Hadrians model, Antoninus adopted two sons who would be his successors, L. Verus and Marcus Auerlius. Another thing of note is that while emperor in 148 CE, he hosted a celebration for the city of Rome's 900th anniversary.

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

The Achievements of the Divine Augustus" is a significant primary source composed by Augustus himself shortly before his death in 14 CE. This first-person autobiographical account was intended for public display and serves to highlight his accomplishments and contributions to Rome. As historian Ronald Mellor notes, "Augustus' military achievements are exaggerated and constitutional issues are also distorted. This document is a rose-colored glorification of the reign from the perspective of the final year of his life when the political struggles and constitutional niceties of a half-century earlier seemed irrelevant" (Mellor, p. 255). Originally inscribed on bronze pillars outside his mausoleum in Rome, copies of the text were distributed throughout the empire, most notably in the Temple of Augustus and Rome at Ancyra (modern-day Ankara, Turkey).

The Res Gestae offers valuable insight into how Augustus sought to shape his legacy as a benevolent ruler who restored peace and stability to Rome. However, the text is far from an objective historical record. It omits or glosses over controversial events such as the civil wars and presents a carefully curated image that emphasizes military triumphs and constitutional propriety. As such, it is a powerful example of political propaganda, revealing more about how Augustus wanted to be remembered than about the complex realities of his reign.

Trajan (98-117)

Trajan was Rome's Emperor from 98-117 C.E. Trajan is viewed as one of Rome's "good" Emperors, as he was popular with the senate and the army. He gained popularity by "remit[ing] the 'Crown Tax'" and pushing for grain distribution Trajan promoted welfare for the poor Roman citizens, by essentially creating social welfare. He wanted to provide for poor citizens and give children of deceased army members welfare. Likewise, he was awarded the title: "Optimus Princeps, 'Best Princeps'" and praised in Pliny's speeches. Overall, Trajan left a positive influence on Rome during his emperorship (98-117 C.E.). He built famous Roman structures, focused on imperialism, provided for the poor citizens and army, and strengthened Rome's military. Alexander the Great likely influenced Trajan's desire to expand East (Boatwright et al. 367). However, his expansion in the East was as far East as Rome had ever expanded and therefore highlights his success. Ultimately, "A large part of his fame was his military achievement, represented as always successful"