6.1 The Basics of learning

Types of Learning

• Learning: Any relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that can be attributed to experience.

• Associative learning: The formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses.

  6.2 Classical Conditioning: Pair Up!

• Classical conditioning: A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

  How Classical Conditioning Works

• Pavlov’s Dogs: Pavlov’s work started with a metronome that produced a steady beat. He began with setting the metronome to a steady, constant rhythm. At the first sound of the metronome, it was neutral (the dogs did not respond to it by salivating). Immediately after starting the metronome, though, he placed meat powder on the dog's tongue which caused reflexive salivation. This sequence was repeated: metronome, meat powder, salvation... Eventually, as classical conditioning took place; the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the metronome.

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something that elicits a response without any prior experience.

• Unconditioned response (UR): Response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not evoke a response.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response.

• Conditioned response (CR): Learned reaction elicited by pairing an originally neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

  Extinction and Spontaneous

• Extinction (classical conditioning): Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.

  Generalization

• Stimulus generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus.

  Discrimination

• Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

  Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

• • Food Aversions

• not eating something due to bad memory (food poisoning)

• • Celebrity Endorsements

• believing their products will make you stronger, prettier, etc.

• • Conditioned Emotional Response (Phobias)

• • Aversion Therapy

• overcome bad habits (drinking)

• Conditioned emotional response (CER): An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning.

  6.3 Operant Conditioning: Shape Up!

• Operant (instrumental) conditioning: Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding.

• Law of effect (Thorndike): Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.

  How Operant Conditioning Works

• The probability of response will be influenced by the consequences of responses

• Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box): an apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals. Developed by B.F. Skinner, where a subject would complete an action and would face either a punishment or a reinforcement.

  Reinforcement

• Reinforcer: Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

• Positive reinforcement: Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

• Negative reinforcement: Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.

  Punishment

• Punisher: Any event that decreases the probability or frequency of responses that it follows.

• Positive punishment (punishment): Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.

• Negative punishment (response cost): Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

• Operant extinction: The weakening or disappearance of a nonreinforced operant response.

• Operant stimulus generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

• Operant stimulus discrimination: The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present.

• Shaping: Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern.

  Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Punishment

  • Intensity

  • Reinforces that are more intense will are more likely to result in repeated behavior

  • Timing

  • Reinforcer and punishment more effective when rapidly following a response

  • Consistency

  • Varies when it comes to reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: A pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response.

• Partial reinforcement: A pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.

• Partial reinforcement effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

• Schedules of reinforcement: Rules or plans for determining which responses will be reinforced.

• Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: An arrangement where a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given for every four correct responses.

• Variable ration (VR) schedule: An arrangement where a reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

• Fixed interval (FI) schedule: An arrangement where a reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of tie has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

• Variable interval (VI) schedule: An arrangement where a reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

  Token Economy

• Primary reinforcers: Nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs.

• Secondary reinforcer: A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcer properties by association with a primary reinforcer.

• Token reinforcer: A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.

  6.4 Observational Learning: Watch It!

• Observational learning (modeling): Learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.

  How Observational Learning Works

• Model (in learning): A person who serves as an example in observational learning.

  Three Steps of Observational Learning

  • Paying Attention

  • One important factor is the characteristics of the model

  • More likely to pay attention to:

  • Those in authority

  • Those we admire

  • Those who are similar to us

  • Remembering

  • Remember what the model did

  • Reproducing

  • Imitate or reproduce the model's behavior

  The Three Steps in Action

• Bandura Bobo Doll Study – kids watch adult aggressively attack bobo clown doll and then put in a room with the doll and behavior was observed. The kids proceeded to attack the doll like the adults did.

  • Not all behaviors are learning from positive models

  • Smoking or drinking - family and friends

  • Learning may take place even when the model wasn’t intentionally trying to teach anything

  • Observational learning only prepared us to duplicate a response

  Observational Learning in Everyday Life

  • Workplace behavior

  • Media coverage of real-life tragedies

  • Media violence

  • Media and self-harm

  • Media and aggression

  • Disinhibition

  • Desensitization

• Disinhibition: The removal of inhibition; results in acting out that normally would be restrained.

• Desensitization: A reduction in emotional sensitivity to a stimulus.

  6.5 Cognitive Learning: Think!

• Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

• School psychologists: Psychologists who work in schools and design interventions for students who are having difficulties.

• Educational psychologists: Psychologists who carry out research to better understand how people best learn and how teachers can improve instruction.

  Bloom’s Taxonomy: What We Learn and How We Learn It

• Bloom’s taxonomy: A system for classifying knowledge and learning.

  What We Learn: Types of Knowledge - h3

  • Factual

  • Conceptual

  • Procedural

  • Metacognitive

  How We Learn: Cognitive Processes –h3

  • Remembering

  • Understanding

  • Applying

  • Analyzing

  • Evaluating

  • Creating

  Factors That Influence Cognitive Learning – h2

  Mindset

• Growth mindset: The belief that intelligence and talents can be developed through hard work and effort.

• Fixed mindset: The belief that intelligence and talents are inborn and cannot easily be changed.

  Learning Styles

• Idea that people have preferred means of receiving and processing information; do not appear to have effect on measures of learning

  Learning Strategies

  • Spaced out learning

  • Being reflective

  • Self-testing

  • Using metacognitive strategies

  Types of Learning

• Direct instruction: A method of instruction in which information is presented by lecture or demonstration, and students often learn through rote practice.

• Discovery learning: Learning based on insight and understanding.

• Feedback: Information returned to people about their progress toward a goal.

  6.6 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Behavioral Self-Management

  The Basics of Behavioral Self-Management – h2

  Create a Management Plan – h3

  1. Specify a Behavior Goal

  2. Record a Baseline

  3. Choose Reinforcers

  4. Record your Progress

  5. Reward Successes

  6. Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior (metacognition)

  Extra Techniques to Break Bad Habits

  • Look for alternate behaviors

  • Break up response chains

  • Reduce cues and antecedents

  • Use covert sensitization

  • Use imagery to reduce need of undesired behavior

  • Smoking; think of lung cancer

• Behavioral contract: A formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply.

• Premack principle: Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response.

• Self-recording: Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies.

Chapter in Review:

6.1 The Basics of Learning

6.1.1 Define learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior due to experience

6.1.2 Outline four types of learning

Four types of learning include classical conditioning, operant (or instrumental) conditioning, observational learning, and cognitive learning

6.1.3 Define associative learning and identify two types of associative learning

Associative learning is a simple type of learning that occurs when we form associations between stimuli, behaviors, or both. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two basic types of associative learning.

6.2 Classical Conditioning: Pair Up!

6.2.1 Explain how classical conditioning works

Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, is based on a naturally occurring association between an unconditioned stimulus (US) and an unconditioned reflexive response (UR) that occurs in response to that US. If a neutral stimulus (NS) is consistently paired with the US, an association between the two will be established. The NS will become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that is capable of producing a conditioned response (CR).

6.2.2 Distinguish between extinction and spontaneous recovery

When the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the CR will be weakened or inhibited, and extinction will occur. After extinction seems to be complete, a rest period may lead to the temporary reappearance of a CR. This is called spontaneous recovery.

6.2.3 Differentiate between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning

Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the CS also will produce a response. Generalization gives way to stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus, but not to similar stimuli.

6.2.4 Name four instances of classical conditioning in everyday life

Food aversions can stem from classical conditioning, and celebrity endorsements for products are also usually based on classical conditioning. Emotional responses can also be the product of classical conditioning, these are referred to as conditioned emotional responses (CERs). Finally, clinicians also use classical conditioning in aversion therapy as a way to get clients to give up bad habits such as alcohol dependency.

6.3 Operant Conditioning: Shape Up!

6.3.1 Explain how operant conditioning works, including how positive and negative reinforcement and punishment will impact the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

Operant conditioning occurs when a voluntary action is followed by a reinforcer (which increases the frequency of the action) or a punisher (which decreases the frequency of the action). Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that a response will be repeated. Positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood that the response will occur again.

6.3.2 Distinguish between generalization and discrimination in operant conditioning

In generalization, an operant response tends to occur when stimuli similar to those preceding reinforcement are present. In discrimination, responses are given in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated with reinforcement and withheld in the presence of stimuli associated with nonreinforcement.

6.3.3 Explain how shaping works

By rewarding successive approximations to a particular response, behaviors can be shaped into desired patterns.

6.3.4 Name three factors that impact the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment

The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment is dependent upon their intensity (typically they will be more effective when they are delivered very soon after a behavior), and how consistently they are administered (punishment is more effective when it is administered consistently, after every behavior; however, the effectiveness of reinforcement depending on its schedule).

6.3.5 Differentiate between continuous and partial schedules of reinforcement and name the four types of partial schedules of reinforcement

Two basic schedules of reinforcement are continuous (after every response) or partial (only a portion of responses are reinforced). Continuous reinforcement is useful in the early stages of learning; partial reinforcement is effective after a behavior has been learned and produces greater resistance to extinction. The four most basic partial schedules of reinforcement are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Each produces a distinct pattern of responding.

6.3.6 Contrast primary and secondary reinforcers

Operant learning may be based on primary reinforcers (which are rooted in biology) and secondary reinforcers (such as token and social reinforcers). Primary reinforcers are “natural,” physiologically based rewards. Secondary reinforcers are learned and sometimes gain their reinforcing value because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. Tokens and money gain their reinforcing value in this way.

6.3.7 Name two instances of operant conditioning in everyday life

Operant conditioning can be seen in the use of token economies and in the partial reinforcement schedules that govern slot machines in casinos.

6.4 Observational Learning: Watch It!

6.4.1 Name the three steps involved in observational learning

Through observational learning, we can learn to perform particular actions (e.g., how to tie your shoes) as well as specific attitudes and emotional responses. Observational learning involves three steps: paying attention to the model, remembering what the model did, and being able to reproduce (imitate) the model’s behavior

6.4.2 Describe three characteristics of models we are most likely to imitate

We are more likely to pay attention to models that we admire, who are authority figures, or who are similar to us. However, not all behaviors, attitudes, and emotions that are learned through observation are positive, and observational learning can occur even when the model did not intend to teach anything.

6.4.3 Explain the connection between observational learning and operant conditioning

Whether we imitate a model’s behavior depends on whether we have seen the model rewarded or punished for their action. In this way, operant learning principles play a role in observational learning.

6.4.4 Name two instances of observational learning in everyday life

Observational learning is important in the workplace, where people learn acceptable standards of behavior by watching their co-workers. In addition, the media-including television, the Internet, and video games- provides powerful models from which kids can learn through observation.

6.4.5 Outline three reasons why exposure to violent media may be associated with later aggression among children and adolescents, and what the research actually says about this association

Young people may learn new and aggressive and anti-social behaviors from models in the media. However aggressive behaviors may also be increased if media serves to disinhibit viewer’s impulses to control aggression, or if it desensitizes people to violence. Early research suggested that playing violent video games promotes aggression; however, more recent research has suggested a more complex relationship between these two factors. It’s also important to remember that much of the early research was correlational, and we cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships under such circumstances.

6.5 Cognitive Learning: Think!

6.5.1 Define cognitive learning, and name two groups of psychologists who are interested in cognitive learning

Cognitive learning refers to our ability to acquire skills and information using thinking, memory, and problem solving. Two groups of psychologists who study issues related to cognitive learning are school psychologists and educational psychologists.

6.5.2 Outline the two main dimensions of Bloom’s taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification system that organizes information about types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive) and the cognitive processes (remembering, understanding, applying, evaluating, creating) that are involved in learning.

6.5.3 Describe four factors that affect cognitive learning

Cognitive learning is influenced by learned characteristics (working memory, clinical diagnoses, persistence, motivations, self-efficacy, and mindset, but not learning styles), learning strategies (use of self-testing and metacognitive strategies), types of instruction (direct instruction, discovery instruction, guided discovery), and the learning environment (use of feedback and technology).

6.5.4 Name some instances of cognitive learning in everyday life

In addition to traditional “school” settings, cognitive learning happens in many other settings (e.g., while reading for pleasure, watching a video, or engaging in everyday conversations).

6.6 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Behavioral Self-Management

6.6.1 Name four strategies that can help change your bad habits

Four strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing alternative responses, breaking response chains, avoiding antecedent cues, and using covert sensitization.

6.6.2 Distinguish between covert sensitization and covert reinforcement

In covert sensitization, aversive images are used to discourage unwanted behavior. Covert reinforcement is a way to encourage desired responses by mental rehearsal.

6.6.3 Create a plan to change your behavior

We hope that after this section, you’ll be better able to think about how you can use these strategies to help develop a plan to manage any bad habits that you want to change.