Psych of Learning Exam 3

Punishers

consequences that weaken behavior

Reinforcers

strengthen or increase/maintain probability of behavior occurring in future

Positive reinforcement

some event (often pleasant) is presented following a certain behavior --> increase in the future strength of that behavior

Example of positive reinforcement

dog does a trick and gets a treat, dog wants to do trick in future

Negative reinforcement

some event (often aversive) is removed following a certain behavior --? Increase in the future strength of that behavior

Example of negative reinforcement

Car beeps until you buckle your seat belt; you will want to buckle your seat belt in the future to avoid that beeping

Positive punishment

some event (aversive) is presented following a certain behavior ---> decrease in the future strength of that behavior

Example of positive punishment

Speeding, you get a ticket —> future chances of you speeding decrease

Negative punishment

some event (pleasant) is removed following a certain behavior ---> decrease in the future strength of that behavior

Example of negative punishment

Stay out past curfew and lose car privileges —> future chances of you staying out past curfew decrease

Shaping

Gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations. Trainers often use handheld clickers

• To start; clicker is paired with food (primary reinforcer → reinforcing w/o any learning required)

• Clicker becomes secondary reinforcer → reinforcing event because paired with existing reinforcer

Primary reinforcer

reinforcing w/o any learning required

Secondary reinforcer

reinforcing event because paired with existing reinforcer; allows for quick reinforcer delivery; less prone to satiation; positive reinforcers preferred over negative

Schedule of reinforcement

Behavior requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement

Continuous schedule of reinforcement

The response is reinforced every time it occurs

• Best for learning new behavior

• Ex: Teaching a dog to sit

Intermittent schedule of reinforcement

Some responses but not all are reinforced

• Best for maintaining previously learned behaviors long-term

• Ex: Rewarding dog for going to the bathroom outside

Ratio

Reinforcement is contingent on achieving the required # of responses

Interval

Reinforcement is contingent on a specified amount of time passing between reinforced responses

Fixed

Requirements for reinforcement stay the same each time

Variable

Requirements for reinforcement vary

Four basic schedules of reinforcement

Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval

Fixed Ratio

• Reinforcement contingent on predictable, fixed #’s of responses; rewards quantity of responses not quality

• produces high rate or response along with a short post-reinforcement pause following each instance of reinforcement

• creates a “break-and-run” pattern of behavior when graphed

Post-reinforcement pause

Brief break in responses after receiving reinforcement, Generally higher requirements cause longer pauses

Example of Fixed Ratio

Buy 9 coffees, get the 10th free

Ratio Strain

increasing workload too fast leads to breakdown/burnout

Variable Ratio

• reinforcement is contingent on unpredictable, changing numbers of responses

• Produces high rates of responding with little or no pause

• The unpredictability of the schedule maintains responding

• Very resistant to extinction

• Accounts for persistence in addiction & other maladaptive behaviors

Example of Variable Ratio

Slot machine

Fixed Interval

a schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable time period

Example of Fixed Interval

weekly paycheck

Variable Interval

• the first response after a varying amount of time in reinforced

• Creates a moderate, steady rate of responding

• Little to no post reinforcement pause

• Rate of response is slower than VR schedule

In Ratio, reinforcement is contingent on the ____ of the behavior

occurrences

In interval, reinforcement is contingent on the ____ since the last behavior

times

____ schedules produce post-reinforcement pauses; amount of time or responses to next reinforcement is predictable, so there’s less urgency

Fixed

____ schedules maintain a stead rate of responding throughout; not as predictable

Variable

Duration Schedule

Reinforcement is contingent on performing a behavior continuously throughout the interval

Example of Duration Schedule

rewarding yourself for time spent studying in the library but only counting the time you actively spent working

Response rate schedules

reinforcement is contingent on maintaining a specified level of a behavior throughout the time interval

Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)

reinforcement is contingent on maintaining speed of the target response above the specified threshold (reward quick responses)

Example of Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)

multiplication tables, sprinting

Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)

reinforcement is contingent on maintaining a speed of the target response below the specified threshold (rewards slower response)

Example of Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)

driving fewer miles an hour to avoid getting a speeding ticket

Differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)

reinforcement is contingent on maintaining a  speed of the target response within the specified limits (rewards response at a specific pace)

Example of Differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)

learning a piano & being reinforced each time you play the song in time with the metronome

Non-contingent schedules

reinforcement is not contingent on behavior; delivered independently of response; the tendency to connect behaviors to events in our environment leads to the development of superstitious behavior

Complex schedule

combination of 2 or more simples schedules of reinforcement

Conjunctive schedule

must meet requirements of 2 or more schedules; type of complex schedule

Example of conjunctive schedule

student only earns reward after solving 10 math problems (ratio) AND staying on task for 5 mins (variable)

Adjusting schedule

requirements change based on performance

Example of adjusting schedule

moving from a continuous reward (candy every time child uses toilet) to a variable ratio schedule (random praise after varying # of uses) to sustain behavior long-term

Shaping schedule

an adjusting schedule where the requirements for reinforcement increase based on performance

Example of shaping schedule

babies learning how to walk

Chained schedule

sequence of 2 or more schedules where each reinforcer serves as the DS for the next link of the chain. Sequence ends with reinforcement (specific order)

Example of chained schedule

get bread —> apply peanut butter —> apply jelly —> eat sandwhich

Goal gradient effect

increasing strength & efficiency near the reinforcement/goal

Example of goal gradient effect

Increase studying/cramming right before the test

Backwards chaining

teaching a behavior chain by starting at the end (closest to reinforcement) and working backward

Example of backwards chaining

 teaching a child how to get dressed starting with the last step and working towards the beginning

Drive Reduction Theory

behavior is reinforced by the reduction of physiological drives; primary reinforcers reduce physiological need; secondary reinforcers are associated with a primary reinforcer, either directly or indirectly

Example of drive reduction theory

thirst —> drinking water —> reduction in thirst (physiological need satisfied)

Premack Principle

high probability behaviors can be used to reinforce low probability behaviors

Example of premack principle

Letting yourself scroll for 5 mins after every 30 mins studying

• Scrolling - high probability behavior (desired)

• Studying - low probability behavior (less desired)

Response deprivation hypothesis

a behavior can serve as a reinforcer if access to it is restricted and its frequency falls below the preferred level for that activity; must perform the target behavior to restore levels of preferred activity

Example of response deprivation hypothesis

not being able to go to social events until you finish all your homework

Extinction

Nonreinforcement of previously reinforced responses; results in a decrease in the strength response

Procedure

extinction is nonreinforcement of previously reinforced response

Process

extinction is resultant decrease in response strength

Extinction burst

temporary increase in frequency & intensity of responding when extinction first implemented (try harder to obtain the reinforcer)

Example of extinction burst

Child screaming longer & louder in timeout when used to getting their way

Side effects of extinction

Extinction burst, increase in variability, resurgence, emotional experiences (frustration, aggression, depression)

Resurgence

reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement (try old way of obtaining the reinforcer)

Example of resurgence

Child stops throwing toys (target behavior) bc they get to use a “break card” (alternative behavior). If teacher stop honoring the break card, the behavior often comes back (child returns to throwing toys).

Resistance to Extinction

Extent to which responding persists after extinction procedure has been implemented (can be high or low)

• High - takes longer to get back to zero response level

Factors affecting resistance to extinction

Partial reinforcement effect, history of reinforcement, magnitude of behavior, degree of deprivation, previous experience with extinction, distinctive signal for extinction

Partial reinforcement effect

behavior maintained on intermittent (partial) reinforcement schedule will extinguish more slowly than behavior maintained on continuous schedule

• ex: slot machines, phone notifications

History of reinforcement

More reinforcers received = greater resistance to extinction

Magnitude of the reinforcer

Larger reinforcers = greater resistance to extinction

Degree of deprivation

• (ex: food or water deprivation)

• Greater the level of deprivation for the reinforcer = greater the resistance to extinction

Previous experience with extinction

Greater the # of previous exposures to extinction = quicker the extinction will occur

Distinctive signal for extinction

Distinctive stimulus that signals the onset of extinction = quicker extinction will occur

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished response following a rest period after extinction

Stimulus control

Presence of discriminative stimulus reliably affects probability of a behavior

Example of stimulus control

Stop light: red signals drivers to stop, green signals drivers to go

Stimulus generalization

tendency for operant response to be emitted in presence of stimulus similar to SD

Generalization gradient

tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the SD

General rule

 the more similar the stimulus, the stronger the response

Stimulus discrimination

the tendency for the operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus (usually the SD) than another

Discrimination training

reinforcement of responding in the presence of the SD and not in the presence of another stimulus

Example of discrimination training

• 2000 - HzTone (SD): Lever press ( R ) --> Food (SR)

• 1200- HzTone (S): Lever press ( R ) --> No food (-)

• Result: lever pressing only occurs in the presence of the SD and not in the presence of the other stimulus

Answer to question 1

A

Peak shift effect

 following discrimination training, the peak of the generalization will often shift from the SD to a stimulus further removed from S(delta)

Possible explanations of the peak shift effect

• responding occurs to relative rather than absolute values of the stimuli (e.g., higher pitch is better than lower pitch)

• SD has acquired some negative properties due to its similarity to the S(delta)

  • Tendency for the operant response to be emitted more to a dissimilar stimulus (can't be too dissimilar)

Real world example of peak shift effect

Scrolling… images that are exaggerated/shifted are more effective in getting you to stop

Errorless discrimination training

Extinction trials can lead to frustration (responding to S delta = error); a form of gradual discrimination training

2 aspects of errorless dicrimination training

• S(delta) is introduced soon after the animal begins responding appropriately to the SD

• S(delta) is presented in weak form to begin with and then gradually strengthened

Fading

process of gradually altering stimulus intensity

Advantages of fading & errorless discrimination training

minimizes errors & reduces adverse effects of discrimination training such as frustration

Disadvantages of fading & errorless discrimination training

can result in learning that is more rigid and difficult to change in comparison to regular discrimination training

Real world example of errorless discrimination training

Learning math skills: times tables