Psych Unit 4

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

• arises from the interplay between nature (the bodily “push”) and nurture (the “pulls” from our personal experiences, thoughts, and culture)

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

drive reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

• aim is homeostasis

• hypothalamus governs → dopamine

homeostasis

the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive theory

a positive or negative environmental stimulus motivates behavior

• EXTERNAL stimuli

• ex. a food-deprived person who smalls baking bread feels an even stronger hunger desire

arousal theory

says people are motivated to perform behaviors in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal

• ex. you go downstairs from your room and get a snack because you’re bored

Yerkes-Dodson law

says that performance increases with arousal only up to a point (moderate arousal), beyond which performance decreases

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

physiological needs (ex. breathing, hunger, thirst) come before psychological needs (ex. need for achievement, esteem, recognition)

self-transcendence

the need to find meaning and identity beyond the self

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard

grit

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; when its level is low, we feel hunger

insulin

a hormone that lowers the level of glucose in the blood —> helps glucose enter the body’s cells, where it can be used for energy or stored for future use

orexin

a hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus

ghrelin

a hormone secreted by empty stomach, sends hunger signals to the brain

leptin

a protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

PYY

digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

lateral hypothalamus

controls motivated behavior, feeding, and energy balance across species (causes hunger sensation)

ventromedial hypothalamus

regulates glucose, controls thermogenesis, controls appetitive, social, and sexual behaviors; causes fullness feeling

set point

the point where your “weight thermostat” may be set; when body falls below this weight, increased hunger and lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight

• hereditary

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output for basic body functions

• adjusts in response to context

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

estrogen

hormone contributing to female sex characteristics and secreted in greater amounts by females than males

• levels peak during ovulation

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone; both males and females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange

emotions arise from our awareness of our bodily responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Stimuli → arousal → emotion

• we observe our heart racing after a threat, then we feel afraid

• “Laughter is the best medicine”: we laugh not only because we’re happy or something is funny, but we feel happy/good when we laugh

Cannon-Bard

emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and simultaneous subjective experience

• our heart races at the same time we feel afraid

Schachter-two-factor

our experience of emotion depends on two factors: general arousal and simultaneous subjective experience

• we label our fear as being fear → we feel afraid

Zajonc and LeDoux

some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious thinking

1. stimulus → cortex (via thalamus) → amygdala

2. OR directly to amygdala (simple likes, dislikes, fear)

• we automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat

• jump at a loud noise without thinking

Lazarus

cognitive appraisal (“is it dangerous or not?”), sometimes without our awareness, defines emotion

• ex. a bit scared of spin bikes because I sprained my ankle really badly on one that one time

polygraph

measures emotion-linked arousal, as reflected in changed breathing, heart rate, and perspiration

spillover effect

arousal from one event can “spill over” into the next event

• ex. you get good news and are happy and helpful for the rest of the day

facial feedback effect

the tendency for facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

• activating one of the smiling muscles by holding a pen in the teeth makes stressful situations less upsetting

• I’m gonna rock this test😁

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

• walking confidently —> you feel confident

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

motivational conflict

daily conflicts we face between our different approach and avoidance motives

approach-approach

two attractive but incompatible goals pull us

avoidance-avoidance

two undesirable alternatives push us away

approach-avoidance

feeling both attracted and repelled

glucocorticoid

hormone produced from cortex of adrenal glands that have a role in the glucose, protein, and fat metabolism of the body

general adaptation syndrome (Selye)

concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

1. alarm reaction: sympathetic nervous system suddenly activated, zooming heart rate, blood diverted to skeletal muscles, feel faintness of shock

   1. with your resources mobilized, you’re now ready to fight back

2. resistance: body temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, adrenal glands pump hormones into bloodstream

   1. you’re fully engaged, summoning all your resources to meet the challenge

3. exhaustion: makes you more vulnerable to illness or even (in extreme cases) collapse or death

tend and befriend response

under stress, people often provide support to others and bond with and seek support from others

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

Type A

competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, anger-prone people

Type B

easygoing, relaxed people

coronary heart disease

clogging of vessels that nourish the heart muscle (leading cause of death in many developed countries)

catharsis

the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

positive psychology (Seligman)

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life

• used along with measures of objective well-being (e.g. physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of light, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

instinct theory

focused on genetic predispositions as the source of our motivation

flow

the experience between “no work” and “a lot of work”

• marks the immersion and thriving in one’s work

• people who flow in their work (artists, dancers, composers, etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards

grit

passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal

common sense

first conscious awareness (cognitive realization), THEN physiological reaction

• when you become happy, your heart starts beating faster