AP Psychology Unit 2 Review

Heredity

Heredity

Passing on of physical and mental traits from one generation to the next

Environment

External factors influencing an individual's traits and behaviors

Heritability

Mathematical measure estimating how much variation in a population is due to genetics.

Heritability

0 to 1 (e.g., 0.6 means 60% genetic influence and 40% environmental).

Nature (Genetics, Biology, Heredity)

Genetics determine individual traits.

Supported by Charles Darwin and Evolutionary Psychology.

Nurture (Environment)

Environment shapes an individual's development.

Factors include upbringing, education, wealth, and social influences.

Epigenetics

Study of how environment and behavior affect gene expression.

• Mechanism: Environment can turn genes on or off without changing DNA sequence.

• Example: Sustained environmental pressure influencing genetic expression.

Reciprocal Determinism

Environment, individual behavior, and personal beliefs/feelings all influence each other.

Endocrine System

Glands producing hormones to regulate biological processes.

Nervous System

Neurons deliver localized, fast, and short-lived messages.

Homeostasis

Body's ability to maintain internal stability (e.g., body temperature).

Hypothalamus

Function: Controls the pituitary gland and directs autonomic functions.

Hormones: CRH, TRH

Pituitary Gland (Master Gland)

Function: Communicates with other glands to regulate hormones.

Hormones: Growth hormones, Oxytocin, Vasopressin

Pineal Gland

Function: Regulates sleep cycles.

Hormone: Melatonin ( helps you fall a sleep at night)

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Function: Regulate metabolism, growth, and calcium levels.

Hormones: Thyroid hormones, Parathyroid hormones, Calcitonin

Adrenal Glands:

Function: Regulate salt levels, blood pressure, and oxygen intake.

Hormones: Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Aldosterone

Pancreas

Function: Regulates blood sugar levels.

Hormones: Insulin, Glucagon

Gonads (Ovaries/Testes)

Function: Enable reproduction.

Hormones: Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

• Sends out orders to the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves branching off brain and spine.

• Communicates between CNS and body.

• Divisions:

  • Sensory (Afferent): Conducts impulses from stimuli to CNS.

  • Motor (Efferent): Sends signals from CNS to muscles/glands.

Somatic Nervous System (Motor Division)

Voluntary movements (e.g., skeletal muscle movement).

Autonomic Nervous System ( Motor Division )

Involuntary activities (e.g., heartbeat, digestion).

• Sympathetic Division: Mobilizes body for action (fight or flight).

• Parasympathetic Division: Relaxes the body (rest and digest).

Neurons

Basic functional unit of the nervous system, responsible for sending signals

• Parts:

  • Dendrites, Cell Body (Soma), Axon, Myelin Sheath, Axon Terminal

Glial Cells

Support neurons with nutrients and structural support

Afferent Neurons (Sensory)

Send signals to the brain and spinal cord.

Efferent Neurons (Motor):

Send signals from the brain and spinal cord to the body

Action Potential

Electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

Resting Potential

More negative ions inside the neuron than outside.

Depolarization

Triggered when stimulus meets threshold, causing neuron to fire.

Repolarization

Process of returning neuron to resting potential after firing.

Refractory Period:

Period during repolarization when the neuron cannot fire again.

Synapse

Space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another.

Chemical Synapses

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers.

Reuptake: Presynaptic neuron reabsorbs extra neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Dopamine

Movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

Hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

Endorphins

Pain control and tolerance

Epinephrine

Emotional response and memory.

Norepinephrine

Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness

Glutamate

Long-term memory and learning.

GABA

Sleep, movement, and slows nervous system

Agonist Drugs:

Increase effectiveness of neurotransmitters.

Bind to receptors, mimic neurotransmitters, or block reuptake.

Examples: Xanax (GABA), Prozac (Serotonin), Opioids (Endorphins)

Antagonist Drugs

Decrease effectiveness of neurotransmitters.

Block neurotransmitter release or receptor binding.

Examples: Antipsychotics (Dopamine), Alcohol (Glutamate).

Broca's Area

Speech production (damage leads to Broca's Aphasia).

Wernicke's Area

Comprehension of meaningful speech (damage leads to Wernicke's Aphasia).

Medulla Oblongata

Regulates cardiovascular and respiratory systems

Pons

Connects brainstem regions; coordinates movement and sleep/dream.

Cerebellum

Maintains balance and coordination

Brainstem

Includes medulla, pons, and midbrain; controls autonomic functions

Spinal Cord

Connects brain to body; information highway.

Cerebrum

All brain parts excluding brainstem and cerebellum

Cerebral Cortex

Thin layer covering the brain; divided into lobes

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Frontal Lobe

Prefrontal Cortex: Judgment, foresight, speech.

Motor Cortex: Voluntary movement (represented by Motor Homunculus).

Parietal Lobe

Receives sensory information (touch, pain, temperature).

Somatosensory Cortex: Register touch/movement (represented by Sensory Homunculus)

Occipital Lobe

Visual processing via Visual Cortex.

Temporal Lobe

Recognizes faces, smell, hearing, and balance.

• Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension.

• Angular Gyrus: Transforms visual words into auditory form.

• Auditory Cortex: Processes sounds.Thalamus

Thalamus ( Limbic System )

Sends sensory information to forebrain for interpretation.

Hippocampus ( Limbic System )

Creates new memories.

Amygdala ( Limbic System )

Emotional reactions (fear, anxiety, aggression).

Hypothalamus ( Limbic System )

Homeostasis (thirst, hunger, temperature).

Nucleus Accumbens ( Limbic System )

Pleasure, reward, motivation.

Basal Ganglia ( Limbic System )

Intentional body movement (linked to motor cortex).

Left Hemisphere:

Language, words, logical thinking.

Right Hemisphere

Spatial concepts, facial recognition.

Phineas Gage

Damaged prefrontal cortex and limbic system, leading to personality change.

Split-Brain Research (Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga)

Corpus Callosum Severed: Left and right hemispheres can't communicate.

Findings: Left hemisphere - language; Right hemisphere - spatial.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Electrodes on scalp record electrical signals from neurons.

Used for sleep and seizure research.

CT Scan (Computed Tomography):

Advanced X-rays of the brain.

Detects brain damage or tumors.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

Radioactive glucose injection tracks brain activity.

Real-time brain function.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Magnetic field creates detailed images of brain structures.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging):

Similar to MRI but shows metabolic functions.

Detailed brain activity.

Depressants

Reduce neural activity (alcohol, sleeping pills).

Opioids

Depressants with high addiction potential (morphine, heroin).

Stimulants

Excite neural activity (caffeine, cocaine).

Hallucinogens

Alter perception (LSD, marijuana).

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles, blood pressure, hormones

Restoration Theory

Sleep restores energy and resources.

Adaptive Theory

Evolutionary aspect; conserves energy for survival.

Information Processing Theory

Sleep helps form and consolidate memories

Alpha Waves

Slow, high amplitude (relaxed).

Beta Waves:

Fast, low amplitude (mental activity).

Theta Waves

Medium amplitude, slower (relaxation).

Delta Waves

High amplitude, slowest (deepest sleep).

Non-REM Stage 1:

Light sleep, alpha waves.

Non-REM Stage 2:

Transitional stage, sleep spindles and K-complexes, theta waves.

Non-REM Stage 3

Deepest sleep, growth hormone, delta waves

REM Stage

Rapid Eye Movement, beta waves, dreams, paralysis of muscles

Hypnagogic Sensations

Sensations perceived as real during light sleep.

Insomnia

Trouble falling or staying asleep.

Sleep Apnea

Difficulty breathing during sleep; can't enter REM sleep.

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollably falling asleep during the day

Sleep Terrors/Night Terrors

Intense fear during sleep, leading to sleep deprivation