AP Psychology Unit 2

Neurons

a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell body/Soma

the cell's life support center

Dendrite

receives messages from other cells

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

terminal branches of axon

form junctions with other cells

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing

excitatory signals

encourage action potential

inhibitory signals

depress action

Refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

synapse/synaptic gap

the junction between on cell's axon tip and another's dendrite

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. Malfunctions can cause paralysis.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. Malfunctions can cause Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. Malfunctions can cause depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation. Malfunctions can cause depression.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that helps regulate the nervous system. Malfunctions can cause seizures, tremors, insomnia, and alcohol use disorder.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter that deals with memory. Malfunctions can cause migraines and seizures.

Endorphins

A neurotransmitter that helps with pain control and pleasure. Malfunctions can suppress endorphins.

Agonist

Something that excites neuron firing

Antagonist

Something that inhibits neuron firing

central nervous system

Made up of the brain and spinal cord and is the body's decision maker.

periphreal nervous system

Gathers information and sends messages from the central nervous system

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory/Afferent Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor/Efferent Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons in the brain where information from the other neurons are processed

somatic nervous system

Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflexes

automatic responses to stimuli

Endocrine system

Works with the nervous system and produces hormones

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Hypothalamus

brain region controlling the pituitary gland

Thyroid

regulates metabolism

Pituitary

Secretes many different hormones

parathyroid

helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood

pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

adrenal glands

produces adrenaline

testes

produces male sex hormones

ovares

secretes female sex hormones

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG

measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

CT

x-ray of the brain

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain

Brainstem

Begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Part of the brainstem that coordinate movements and control sleep

Thalamus

part of the brainstem that relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex. Also controls all senses but smell.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

Part of the brain that controls nonverbal learning, skill memory, judges time, manages emotions, and discriminates sounds and textures.

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

visual cortex

The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

nuerogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brains

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Sperry and Gazzaniga

known for their work with the split-brain

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

dual processing

principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

sequential processing

best for solving new problems, which requires our focused attention

behavioral geneticists

study the role played by our genes and our environment in mental ability, emotional stability, temperament, personality, interests, etc.; they look at the causes of our individual differences

chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

social scripts

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Beta Waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness

Alpha Waves

brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep

NREM1

light sleep, lasts a few minutes, slowing heart rate, alpha waves, hypnagogic hallucinations

NREM2

Relax more deeply; sleep spindles - bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity; 20 minutes