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define animal physiology
the study of how animals work
name the different levels of which animal physiology can be studied
cell and molecular → organ systems → organismal → ecological →integrative
what did August Krogh say
for every biological problem, there is an organism on which it can be most conveniently studied
give an example of the August Krogh principle
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors first studied in electric ray → generate strong current from electric organ (modified muscle) → electric organ has high levels of these receptors
define homeostasis
constancy of internal environment in some animals
define the law of thermodynamics
useful energy is lost during energy transfer and transformation
adaptations are also known as
evolutionary change
adaptations deal with the ultimate … to explain physiology
causation
thermodynamics is the movement of …
heat
thermodynamics studies how energy is ….
transferred between chemical reactants
what are homologous characters
similarity in traits due to inheritance from common ancestors
homologous characters become different due too…
divergent evolution in dissimilar environments
convergent evolution under similar selective pressure can produce similar…
analogous characters
define physical convergence
observed for distantly related animals adapted to SIMILAR environments
illustrates independent evolution of solutions to common problems
define physical divergence
observed for closely related animals adapted to DIFFERENT environment
illustrates modification of originally similar physiology to cope with different problems
define homeostasis
maintenance of internal conditions in the face of environmental perturbations
what two individuals were important in the development of homeostasis
Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon
Claude Bernard described the…
constancy of internal conditions in some animals
Walter Cannon was the first person to use the term…
homeostasis to describe the constancy of the internal enviornment
what type of animals present homeostasis of fewer variables (have a less stable internal environment)
“lower invertebrates”
define a conformer
allow internal conditions to CHANGE when faced with variation in external conditions
a conformer is … expensive in terms of demand for metabolism energy than regulators
less
define a regulator
maintain a relatively constant internal condition regardless of the conditions in the external environment
regulating provides much more … internal environment as environmental changes can have a deleterious effect on physiology
stable
give an example of where an animal is a regulator and a conformer
a lizard CONFORMS to external temperature but regulators their internal salt concentrations within a narrow range
define “poikilo-”
means internal environment changes with external (varied)
define a poikilotherm
an animal with variable internal temperatures and has to regulate their temperature through behavioral measures
define “homeo-”
means internal environment does not change with external (constant)
define a homeotherm
an animal with a relatively constant internal temperature which has to be regulated
define a reflex control pathway
a change in internal or external environment provides a stimulus, the stimulus then causes a response
give an example of a reflex control pathway
animals control body temperature by regulating both heat productive and heat dissipation
define negative feedback
the response sends a signal back to a stimulus, REDUCING the intensity of the stimulus
give an example of negative feedback
when you eat, the incoming food causes the stomach to swell → the change in stomach volume and early digestion products trigger a negative feedback loop, acting through your brain, to reduce your appetite
define positive feedback
maximizes changes in the regulated variable
give an example of positive feedback
the muscles in the stomach are normally regulated to contract and relax in a regular pattern to gently mix food → when toxin is detected, a positive feedback loop is triggered to induce forceful contractions that propel the food back up the esophagus to induce vomiting
define range of tolerance
range of an environmental variable that an animal can survive indefinitely
define range of resistance
outside range of tolerance, the animal is not quickly killed but will eventually die
define “eury-”
animals survive over a wide range
define euryhaline
wide range of external salinities (salt concentrations)
define eurythermal
tolerate a wide range of temperatures
define “steno-”
animals survive over a more restrictive narrow range
define stenohaline
narrow range of external salinities
define stenothermal
narrow temperature range
define acclimation
process of change in response to a CONTROLLED environmental variable (usually done in a lab setting)
define acclimatization
process of change in response to a natural environmental variable
typically involves adjustment to several factors over a long period of time
examples, change of day length & food availability
define proximate causation
immediate or direct cause of an organismal structure, function, or behavior; usually refers to the developmental or physiological mechanism
give an example of proximate causation
giraffe’s long neck → immediate physiological/ biochemical basis of this trait → might examine the genes that specify the size or number of vertebrate in the skeleton
define ultimate causation
why an organism has a particular structure, function, or behavior, usually involves the evolutionary advantage of the trait
give an example of ultimate causation
giraffe’s long neck → whether long necks provided an evolutionary advantage to the ancestors of the giraffe
summarize the contribution of Hippocrates
explained and treated illness based on natural causes
summarize the contribution of Aristotle
emphasized relationship between structure and function (anatomy and physiology)
summarize the contribution of Galen
performed experiments to explain body function
summarize the contribution of Versalius
wrote an anatomy text that showed Galen made errors
summarize the contribution of Harvey
major advances in cardiovascular physiology
summarize the contribution of Boerhaven & von Haller
emphasized that physiology involves both chemistry and physics
summarize the contribution of Schleiden & Schwann
cell theory helps explain anatomy and physiology
summarize the contribution of Bernard
hemoglobin carries oxygen, nerves regulate blood flow, importance of hormones, noted constancy of internal environments
summarize the contributions of Cannon
coined “homeostasis”
summarize the contributions of Scholander
early “comparative physiologist” (e.g., physiology of diving, fish swim bladder, body temperature in cold)
summarize the contributions of Prosser
importance of central pattern generators (groups of neurons) to control rhythmic actions
summarize the contributions of Schmidt-Nielsen
physiology in extreme environments
summarize the contributions of Bartholomew
founder of “ecological physiology”
summarize the contributions of Hochachka & Somero
adaptional biochemical physiology
(major animal phyla) Porifera
sponges
(major animal phyla) Cnidaria
corals, jellyfish, anemones
(major animal phyla) Platyhelminthes
flatworms
(major animal phyla) Nematoda
roundworms
(major animal phyla) Annelida
segmented worms
(major animal phyla) Mollusca
clams, snails, slugs, squid, octopus
(major animal phyla) Arthropoda
spiders, crustaceans, insects
(major animal phyla)Echinodermata
sea stars, sea cucumbers
(major animal phyla) Chordata
includes vertebrates (Vertebrate or Craniata)