chapter 1 and 2 (study guide and pp)

define animal physiology

the study of how animals work

name the different levels of which animal physiology can be studied

cell and molecular → organ systems → organismal → ecological →integrative

what did August Krogh say

for every biological problem, there is an organism on which it can be most conveniently studied

give an example of the August Krogh principle

nicotinic acetylcholine receptors first studied in electric ray → generate strong current from electric organ (modified muscle) → electric organ has high levels of these receptors

define homeostasis

constancy of internal environment in some animals

define the law of thermodynamics

useful energy is lost during energy transfer and transformation

adaptations are also known as

evolutionary change

adaptations deal with the ultimate … to explain physiology

causation

thermodynamics is the movement of …

heat

thermodynamics studies how energy is ….

transferred between chemical reactants

what are homologous characters

similarity in traits due to inheritance from common ancestors

homologous characters become different due too…

divergent evolution in dissimilar environments

convergent evolution under similar selective pressure can produce similar…

analogous characters

define physical convergence

observed for distantly related animals adapted to SIMILAR environments

illustrates independent evolution of solutions to common problems

define physical divergence

observed for closely related animals adapted to DIFFERENT environment

illustrates modification of originally similar physiology to cope with different problems

define homeostasis

maintenance of internal conditions in the face of environmental perturbations

what two individuals were important in the development of homeostasis

Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon

Claude Bernard described the…

constancy of internal conditions in some animals

Walter Cannon was the first person to use the term…

homeostasis to describe the constancy of the internal enviornment

what type of animals present homeostasis of fewer variables (have a less stable internal environment)

“lower invertebrates”

define a conformer

allow internal conditions to CHANGE when faced with variation in external conditions

a conformer is … expensive in terms of demand for metabolism energy than regulators

less

define a regulator

maintain a relatively constant internal condition regardless of the conditions in the external environment

regulating provides much more … internal environment as environmental changes can have a deleterious effect on physiology

stable

give an example of where an animal is a regulator and a conformer

a lizard CONFORMS to external temperature but regulators their internal salt concentrations within a narrow range

define “poikilo-”

means internal environment changes with external (varied)

define a poikilotherm

an animal with variable internal temperatures and has to regulate their temperature through behavioral measures

define “homeo-”

means internal environment does not change with external (constant)

define a homeotherm

an animal with a relatively constant internal temperature which has to be regulated

define a reflex control pathway

a change in internal or external environment provides a stimulus, the stimulus then causes a response

give an example of a reflex control pathway

animals control body temperature by regulating both heat productive and heat dissipation

define negative feedback

the response sends a signal back to a stimulus, REDUCING the intensity of the stimulus

give an example of negative feedback

when you eat, the incoming food causes the stomach to swell → the change in stomach volume and early digestion products trigger a negative feedback loop, acting through your brain, to reduce your appetite

define positive feedback

maximizes changes in the regulated variable

give an example of positive feedback

the muscles in the stomach are normally regulated to contract and relax in a regular pattern to gently mix food → when toxin is detected, a positive feedback loop is triggered to induce forceful contractions that propel the food back up the esophagus to induce vomiting

define range of tolerance

range of an environmental variable that an animal can survive indefinitely

define range of resistance

outside range of tolerance, the animal is not quickly killed but will eventually die

define “eury-”

animals survive over a wide range

define euryhaline

wide range of external salinities (salt concentrations)

define eurythermal

tolerate a wide range of temperatures

define “steno-”

animals survive over a more restrictive narrow range

define stenohaline

narrow range of external salinities

define stenothermal

narrow temperature range

define acclimation

process of change in response to a CONTROLLED environmental variable (usually done in a lab setting)

define acclimatization

process of change in response to a natural environmental variable

typically involves adjustment to several factors over a long period of time

examples, change of day length & food availability

define proximate causation

immediate or direct cause of an organismal structure, function, or behavior; usually refers to the developmental or physiological mechanism

give an example of proximate causation

giraffe’s long neck → immediate physiological/ biochemical basis of this trait → might examine the genes that specify the size or number of vertebrate in the skeleton

define ultimate causation

why an organism has a particular structure, function, or behavior, usually involves the evolutionary advantage of the trait

give an example of ultimate causation

giraffe’s long neck → whether long necks provided an evolutionary advantage to the ancestors of the giraffe

summarize the contribution of Hippocrates

explained and treated illness based on natural causes

summarize the contribution of Aristotle

emphasized relationship between structure and function (anatomy and physiology)

summarize the contribution of Galen

performed experiments to explain body function

summarize the contribution of Versalius

wrote an anatomy text that showed Galen made errors

summarize the contribution of Harvey

major advances in cardiovascular physiology

summarize the contribution of Boerhaven & von Haller

emphasized that physiology involves both chemistry and physics

summarize the contribution of Schleiden & Schwann

cell theory helps explain anatomy and physiology

summarize the contribution of Bernard

hemoglobin carries oxygen, nerves regulate blood flow, importance of hormones, noted constancy of internal environments

summarize the contributions of Cannon

coined “homeostasis”

summarize the contributions of Scholander

early “comparative physiologist” (e.g., physiology of diving, fish swim bladder, body temperature in cold)

summarize the contributions of Prosser

 importance of central pattern generators (groups of neurons) to control rhythmic actions

summarize the contributions of Schmidt-Nielsen

physiology in extreme environments

summarize the contributions of Bartholomew

founder of “ecological physiology”

summarize the contributions of Hochachka & Somero

adaptional biochemical physiology

(major animal phyla) Porifera

sponges

(major animal phyla) Cnidaria

corals, jellyfish, anemones

(major animal phyla) Platyhelminthes

flatworms

(major animal phyla) Nematoda

roundworms

(major animal phyla) Annelida

segmented worms

(major animal phyla) Mollusca

clams, snails, slugs, squid, octopus

(major animal phyla) Arthropoda

spiders, crustaceans, insects

(major animal phyla)Echinodermata

sea stars, sea cucumbers

(major animal phyla) Chordata

includes vertebrates (Vertebrate or Craniata)