ap hug midterm

What is human geography?

Study of the spatial relationships between humans and their environment; a core area of social‑science inquiry.

Why is human geography a relevant area of social‑science inquiry?

Because it explains how cultural, economic, political, and environmental processes shape societies and the planet.

Name the major landmasses on Earth.

Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Australia (Oceania).

Name the major bodies of water on Earth.

Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern (Antarctic) Ocean, Arctic Ocean; plus major seas, lakes and rivers.

What is the theory of “Pangea”?

A hypothesis that all present‑day continents were once joined in a single supercontinent called Pangea, which later split apart.

How does Pangea explain today’s arrangement of landmasses?

Plate tectonics caused Pangea to fracture and drift, creating the current distribution of continents and oceans.

Define the appropriate terminology for bodies of water and land masses (e.g., ocean, sea, continent, island).

Ocean = large continuous body of saline water; Sea = partially enclosed oceanic water; Continent = large continuous landmass; Island = land surrounded by water.

Identify the major layers of the Earth and their composition.

Crust (silicate rocks), Mantle (solid but flow‑able silicates), Outer core (liquid iron‑nickel), Inner core (solid iron‑nickel).

Explain lines of longitude.

Imaginary vertical lines running north‑south from pole to pole; measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°).

Explain lines of latitude.

Imaginary horizontal lines running east‑west; measure distance north or south of the Equator (0°).

Define absolute location and its importance to geographers.

The exact coordinates (latitude & longitude) of a place; essential for precise mapping, navigation, and spatial analysis.

List the world’s major climate zones and a key characteristic of each.

Tropical (high temps, abundant rain), Arid (low precipitation), Temperate (moderate temps, distinct seasons), Continental (large seasonal temperature range), Polar (very cold, little precipitation).

Differentiate climate from weather.

Climate = long‑term average atmospheric conditions; Weather = short‑term atmospheric conditions at a specific time and place.

How do latitude and longitude affect climate zones?

Latitude determines solar angle and day length, shaping temperature belts; longitude influences oceanic currents and regional climate patterns.

Describe how water currents impact climate zones and weather patterns.

Currents transport heat, moderating coastal climates (e.g., Gulf Stream warms Europe) and influencing precipitation and storm tracks.

Where is North America located relative to the Western Hemisphere?

In the western half of the Earth, between the Prime Meridian and the 180° meridian, north of the Equator.

What are the major nations, climate zones, cultural regions, and language groups in the Americas?

United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, etc.; climates range from Arctic to tropical; cultural regions include Anglo‑America, Latin America, Caribbean; languages: English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, indigenous languages.

Where is Europe located relative to the Eastern Hemisphere?

Between 0° and 180° east longitude, north of the Equator, spanning from the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains.

What are the major nations, cultural groups, linguistic divisions, religious divisions, and political divisions in Europe?

Nations: Germany, France, UK, Italy, etc.; cultural groups: Western, Eastern, Southern, Northern Europe; languages: Germanic, Romance, Slavic, etc.; religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox), Islam, Judaism; political: EU, NATO, individual states.

Where is Africa located relative to the Eastern Hemisphere?

Primarily east of the Prime Meridian, spanning from about 17° W to 51° E, south of the Mediterranean.

What are the major nations, cultural groups, linguistic divisions, religious divisions, and political divisions in Africa?

Nations: Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, etc.; cultural groups: Sub‑Saharan, North African, Sahelian; languages: Afro‑asiatic, Niger‑Congo, Nilo‑Saharan, Khoisan; religions: Islam, Christianity, Indigenous beliefs; political: AU, ECOWAS, SADC, etc.

Define demographics and its importance to human geography.

The statistical study of population size, structure, and distribution; crucial for understanding human settlement patterns, resource use, and policy planning.

What is the Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) and how is it calculated?

(Birth rate – Death rate) ÷ 10; expresses population growth excluding migration.

How have key developmental factors influenced demographic shifts over time?

Industrialization, medical advances, education, and urbanization reduced death rates, later lowered birth rates, shifting populations from high to low growth stages.

Why are RNI, Total Fertility Rate (TFR), and doubling time significant?

RNI shows natural growth speed, TFR indicates average children per woman, doubling time estimates how long a population will double at current growth.

How do political, economic, and cultural factors affect demographic changes worldwide?

Policies (e.g., family planning), economic development (employment, income), cultural norms (family size, gender roles) all shape birth, death, and migration rates.

What is migration and what factors drive it?

The movement of people between locations; driven by push factors (conflict, poverty) and pull factors (jobs, safety, education).

Define the Demographic Transition Model (DTM).

A four‑stage model describing how societies move from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates as they develop.

List the four stages of the DTM and a key characteristic of each.

Stage 1: Hunter‑gatherer, high birth & death rates; Stage 2: Agricultural, death rates fall; Stage 3: Industrial, birth rates decline; Stage 4: Post‑industrial, low birth & death rates, stable population.

What major technological/economic developments push societies from one DTM stage to the next?

Improved agriculture, sanitation, medical care, industrial machinery, education, and service‑sector growth.

How do technology changes affect cultural mores across DTM stages?

Higher education and media spread new family norms, gender roles, and reduced fertility preferences.

Describe the key traits, technologies, and limitations of DTM Stage 1.

Hunter‑gatherer; stone tools, limited food storage; high mortality, low life expectancy.

What factors could move a society from DTM Stage 1 to Stage 2?

Adoption of farming, domestication of animals, permanent settlements, irrigation.

Contrast DTM Stage 1 societies with Stage 2 societies.

Stage 1: Nomadic, subsistence; Stage 2: Sedentary agriculture, surplus food, population growth.

Which technological changes propel a society from DTM Stage 3 to Stage 4?

Advanced manufacturing, automation, information technology, rise of service economies.

What political and cultural changes accompany the shift from DTM Stage 3 to Stage 4?

Democratization, welfare states, gender equality, lower fertility norms, increased urbanization.

Summarize Thomas Malthus’ theory of population vs. food production.

Population grows geometrically, food production linearly; eventually population would outstrip food supply.

Why didn’t Malthus’ dire prediction materialize?

Technological innovations (mechanization, fertilizers, GM crops) dramatically increased food production.

How does Malthusian thought influence contemporary concerns about overpopulation?

It underpins debates on sustainability, resource limits, and climate change impacts.

What are the basic components of a population pyramid?

Age cohorts (usually 5‑year groups) displayed for males (left) and females (right).

What can a population pyramid reveal about a society?

Stage of demographic transition, dependency ratio, potential labor force, past events (war, baby boom), and future growth trends.

What key factors influence population density and distribution?

Physical geography (climate, water, soil), economic opportunities, infrastructure, political stability, cultural preferences.

How are calculations used to determine population density?

Population ÷ land area (persons per km² or mi²).

Define migration and its impact on patterns.

The movement of people; reshapes population size, cultural composition, and economic activity of origin and destination.

Describe the main types of migration and their characteristics.

International (cross‑border), internal (within a country), rural‑to‑urban, stepwise, seasonal, forced (refugees), and chain migration.

What are “push” and “pull” factors in migration?

Push = forces that drive people away (war, poverty); Pull = attractions that draw them (jobs, safety).

Define “core region.”

A dominant, economically powerful area with advanced technology, high wealth, and political influence.

Define “node” in geographic terms.

A central point within a region that serves as a hub for transportation, trade, or communication.

Define “marketplace.”

An area where buyers and sellers meet to exchange goods and services, often located near transport routes.

Define “central business district (CBD).”

The city’s primary commercial and business center, housing major offices, banks, and government buildings.

What are “spatial patterns”?

The arrangement or organization of people, objects, or phenomena across space.

Define “clusters.”

Groups of similar economic activities (e.g., factories, farms) located close together.

What are “land survey patterns”?

Systems used to divide, describe, and map land parcels (grid, metes & bounds, township‑range, etc.).

Define “metes and bounds.”

A land description using natural landmarks and measured distances.

Define “township and range.”

A rectangular grid system for land division used in the U.S. after the 1785 Land Ordinance.

Define “long‑line lot.”

Narrow, elongated parcels designed to give many owners waterfront access.

Define “density” in geography.

The number of objects or people per unit area.

Define “population density.”

The number of people living per unit area (persons/km² or mi²).

Define “diffusion” in cultural geography.

The spread of ideas, innovations, or cultural traits from one place to another.

List the main types of diffusion and a brief example for each.

Hierarchical (fashion from elite to masses), Contagious (slang spreading locally), Stimulus (fast‑food concept adapted locally), Expansion (Islam’s spread), Relocation (Amish moving to the U.S.).

Define “map.”

A visual and symbolic representation of Earth’s surface.

What are “topographic maps” used for?

Depict elevation, landforms, and physical features via contour lines.

What are “thematic maps”?

Maps that highlight a specific theme (population, precipitation, etc.).

Define “choropleth map.”

A map shaded or colored by statistical values within predefined regions (e.g., political boundaries).

Define “isoline map.”

A map showing lines of equal value (temperature, pressure, elevation).

Define “dot‑density map.”

A map using dots to represent the quantity of a phenomenon in a given area.

Define “flow‑line map.”

A map using lines of varying thickness to illustrate movement magnitude (e.g., migration routes).

Define “cartogram.”

A map that resizes geographic areas proportionally to a variable like population or GDP.

What is “map scale”?

The ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground (e.g., 1 cm = 10 km).

What are “projections” in cartography?

Methods for translating the three‑dimensional Earth onto a flat surface, each with its own distortions.

Define “GIS.”

Geographic Information System; software that layers, analyzes, and visualizes spatial data.

What is a “data layer” in GIS?

A set of spatial information (e.g., roads, population) linked to geographic coordinates.

Define “GPS.”

Global Positioning System; satellite network that provides precise location coordinates.

What are “Navstar satellites”?

The GPS satellite constellation launched beginning in 1978.

Define “aerial photography.”

Images captured from aircraft or satellites used for mapping and analysis.

Define “remote sensing.”

The acquisition of information about Earth’s surface via satellite or airborne sensors (including infrared).

What do “infrared readings” measure?

Thermal energy emitted by objects, useful for assessing temperature, vegetation health, and water stress.

State the gravity equation used for migration estimation.

Population₁ × Population₂ ÷ Distance.

Define “crude birth rate (CBR).”

Births per 1,000 people per year.

Define “crude death rate (CDR).”

Deaths per 1,000 people per year.

How is “net migration rate (NMR)” calculated?

(Immigrants – Emigrants) ÷ (total population / 1,000).

What is the “demographic equation”?

Population change = (births – deaths) + (immigrants – emigrants).

Define “negative net migration.”

When more people leave a country than enter it.

Define “negative RNI.”

When the death rate exceeds the birth rate, resulting in population decline.

What is “total fertility rate (TFR)”?

The average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.

Why must TFR be above ~2.2 for population replacement?

Because each woman needs slightly more than two children to replace herself and the father, accounting for mortality.

What is “dependency ratio”?

The ratio of non‑working (young + elderly) to working‑age population, expressed per 100 workers.

Define “population pyramid (extended triangle).”

A pyramid with a wide base and narrow tip, indicating high birth rates and a young population (early DTM stages).

Define “population pyramid (inverted).”

A pyramid with a narrow base and wide top, showing low birth rates and an aging population (negative RNI).

Define “population pyramid (rectangular).”

A relatively even distribution across age groups, indicating low birth and death rates and stable growth.

What is “arithmetic density”?

Number of people per unit area of land.

What is “arable land”?

Land suitable for growing crops.

What is a “population center”?

An area of highest population concentration within a region or country.

What is a “centroid” of a country?

The geometric center of its territory (may be uninhabited).

Define “ecumene.”

The portion of Earth’s land surface that is permanently inhabited by humans.

What is a “primate city”?

A single city that dominates a country’s population, economy, and culture.

What was the “Industrial Revolution”?

The shift from hand‑crafted, agrarian economies to machine‑based, industrial production (late 18th–mid 20th c).

What was China’s “One‑Child Policy”?

A 1979 law limiting most families to one child to curb population growth.

What is a “gender imbalance”?

A disproportionate ratio of males to females (or vice‑versa) in a population.

What does “zero population growth” mean?

A situation where the rate of natural increase is 0 % and the population size remains stable.