AP PSYCH Unit 1 + 2

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

research undertaken to solve a specific problem

Introspection

A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings

Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Behavioral Perspective

The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study.

Neurobiological Perspective

Biological factors have important effects on behavior. Brain/NS, genetics, hormones, drugs.

Evolutionary Perspective

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior

Humanistic Perspective

the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness, fulfillment and the freedom to make choices

Sociocultural Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

clinical psychology

studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

counseling psychology

assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and enhance teaching and learning

experimental psychology

the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of basic psychological processes such as learning, memory, and cognition in humans and animals.

forensic psychology

field that blends psychology, law, and criminal justice

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

industrial-organizational psychology

a subfield of psychology that studies and advises on workplace behavior. Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometrics

study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits (test making)

School Psychology

identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

correlational research

Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.

experimental research

research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Theory

a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations

Hypothesis

A testable if-then prediction, often implied by a theory

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

population

everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in

Sample

a subset of the population selected for study

random sampling

method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected for study

operational definition

how researcher defines and will measure research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as a score on an intelligence test.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

third variable

in correlational research, a variable that exerts a causal influence on both variable 1 and variable 2

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (knew it all along)

Subject bias

a subject's behavior changes due to believed expectations of experiment

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.

Placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication

placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior; improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

random selection

A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample

empirical evidence

scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation

anecdotal evidence

Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

inferential statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

Histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

frequency distribution

an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs

normal distribution curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Positive skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.

negative skewed distribution

Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.

bimodal distribution

A distribution (of opinions) that shows two responses being chosen about as frequently as each other.

statistical significance (p-value)

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Scatterplot

a graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Board that reviews research proposals for ethical violations/procedural errors

Confidentiality

Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

deception research

research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something that is done to them

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell (early behaviorism)

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Carl Rogers

Humanistic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality; developed client centered therapy

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism

Neuroanatomy

the study of the structure of the nervous system

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

made up of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

somatic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary action in the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

afferent neurons

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

efferent neurons

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neurons

building blocks of the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.