feminism.

what is feminism?

a social, political, and intellectual movement that seeks to achieve equality between women and men—in rights, opportunities, and social status.

sexism; patriachy

Sexism is discrimination, prejudice, or unfair treatment based on a person’s sex or gender.

Patriarchy is a social system where men hold most power and authority, especially in politics, leadership, family, and culture.

is feminism anti-male?

Feminism is about equality, not hatred or opposition toward men. It challenges unfair systems (like sexism and patriarchy), not individual men as a group.

how can women be sexist and perpetuate patriarchy?

Women can be sexist because sexism and patriarchy are social systems, not just individual attitudes. Anyone raised in those systems can learn, repeat, and enforce their rules — consciously or unconsciously.

reformist vs revolutionary feminist

reform: Work within the existing social and political system to make it more equal.

revolutionary: Transform or completely overturn existing systems (like patriarchy and capitalism), which are seen as inherently oppressive.

What is consciousness-raising? How did it first happen at the start of the contemporary feminist movement?

A process where women gathered in small groups to share personal experiences of sexism, gender roles, and oppression — and then connect those personal stories to larger social and political systems.

Why does hooks criticize academic women’s studies programs?

bell hooks criticizes academic Women’s Studies for becoming too elitist, exclusionary, and disconnected from activism.
She calls for a return to feminism’s roots as a transformative, inclusive movement for social justice.

what is sex?

Biological differences between males, females, and intersex people.

what is gender? where does gender come from?

The social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations society attaches to being male, female, or another identity.

Gender is socially constructed — created and reinforced by culture, family, education, religion, and media.

Why is a binary perspective on sex or gender incorrect? How is it harmful?

A binary perspective means seeing only two options — male/female for sex or man/woman for gender. sexual discrimination, gender roles

How do we see policing of bodies come up in sports? How is this different for male and female athletes?

In sports, policing of bodies shows up through sex testing, appearance rules, and unequal standards for men and women.
Female athletes face far more control and judgment, reflecting how patriarchal and binary ideas about gender and bodies still shape even supposedly “equal” arenas like athletics.

How has the medical community responded to children born with intersex conditions? How do their decisions fit into societal divisions of sex as binary?

The medical community has often tried to “fix” intersex bodies through surgery to fit binary expectations of male or female.
These practices reveal how medicine has enforced the social binary of sex, rather than accepting natural diversity — showing that the idea of two fixed sexes is socially constructed, not purely biological.

How does intersex differ from transgender?

biological condition versus gender identity

What does it mean to say that gender is socially constructed? What are ways we see examples of this in society?

When we say gender is socially constructed, we mean that society — not biology — creates the ideas, expectations, and norms about what it means to be “male,” “female,” or any other gender.

What is gender socialization?

Gender socialization is the process by which people learn the behaviors, expectations, and roles that society considers appropriate for their gender.

heteronormativity; compulsive heteronormativity

The belief or assumption that heterosexuality (attraction between men and women) is the normal, natural, and default form of sexuality.

A term popularized by feminist scholar Adrienne Rich (1980) to describe how society pressures people—especially women—to be heterosexual.

Phallogocentrism

A system where male-centered power (phallus) and male-centered reason (logos) dominate how we define truth, meaning, and identity.
It’s a feminist critique of how language and philosophy privilege masculinity as the norm for humanity.

Queer theory

sexuality and gender are fluid, socially constructed, and changeable — not natural or stable.
It questions how societies create and enforce these categories, and how they shape power, identity, and behavior.

Performative theory of gender (gender performance)

is the idea that gender is not something we are, but something we do through repeated actions, behaviors, and expressions.

Why is it so incendiary to claim that men have systemic privilege in the U.S. today? Who gets to see themselves in stories and media?

the claim that men have systemic privilege isn’t just about material inequality—it’s about who is centered in culture, institutions, and imagination. Questioning that centering disrupts long-standing social narratives, which is why it can feel incendiary.

How is patriarchy a system?

is understood as a system because it’s not just about individual men being sexist or powerful — it’s a social structure that organizes power, values, and norms in ways that privilege men (especially certain kinds of men) and subordinate women and gender-diverse people.

How are misogyny and sexism different, according to Manne?

sexism is the blueprint; misogyny is the police force. One sets the expectations, the other punishes those who challenge them.

How does what happened in the Arrested Development interview exemplify the ideas of misogyny and patriarchy that Manne and Johnson discuss?

Johnson’s point: Patriarchy is not just about individual men being sexist; it’s a social system where men collectively occupy dominant positions and institutions are structured to maintain that dominance.

Manne’s point: Misogyny is about punishing women who challenge or threaten patriarchal expectations.

So, the interview is a microcosm of these theories: it shows how patriarchal structures give men institutional dominance, and how misogyny punishes women (or anyone aligned with feminist norms) who threaten that dominance.

What is privilege? Can you be oppressed and experience privilege? What is it like living in two or more minoritized identities simultaneously?

• Privilege = unearned societal advantage.

• Oppression and privilege are not mutually exclusive; they depend on which identity axes are considered.

• Intersectional identities can make life more complex, sometimes requiring constant negotiation between multiple forms of marginalization.

How do the ideas of hooks and Lorde connect? What about Martinez and Crenshaw? How do all of these thinkers fit into intersectionality?

• Intersectionality = understanding how social categories like race, gender, class, sexuality, and ability interact to produce unique experiences of advantage and disadvantage.

• How each contributes:

  Thinker	Contribution
  bell hooks	Critiques feminism for ignoring race/class; emphasizes inclusive resistance to oppression.
  Audre Lorde	Highlights multiple oppressions and difference as strength; focuses on lived experience of marginalized identities.
  Moraga/Anzaldúa	Shows how ethnicity, culture, and language intersect with gender and sexuality; narrative examples of overlapping oppression.
  Crenshaw	Conceptualizes intersectionality formally; explains systemic implications of overlapping identities.

White privilege

White privilege refers to the unearned advantages that white people experience in societies where whiteness is considered the “norm” or dominant identity. It doesn’t mean that every white person’s life is easy or free of struggle, but it means that race is generally not a barrier to opportunities, safety, or social acceptance.

Why does Butler say we need to dismantle individuality to save the earth?

Butler isn’t literally saying individuality must be erased, but rather that the modern notion of the atomized, self-interested individual must be dismantled in favor of an interdependent, ecological, and socially responsible sense of self in order to address environmental crises effectively.

wave one

Events that kicked it off:

• The Seneca Falls Convention (1848) — the first women’s rights convention in the U.S.

• The abolitionist movement also influenced early feminists, linking women’s rights with anti-slavery activism.

Main goals:

• Legal equality for women, especially:

  • Right to vote (suffrage)

  • Property rights

  • Access to education and employment

Achievements:

• 19th Amendment (1920): Women gained the right to vote.

• Expanded educational and property rights for women.

• Laid the groundwork for future feminist movements.

wave two

Events that kicked it off:

• Publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963), which critiqued the domestic role of women.

• Broader civil rights movements inspired women to challenge inequality.

• Increased labor force participation by women created demand for equal rights.

Main goals:

• Workplace equality: Equal pay, opportunities, and anti-discrimination laws.

• Reproductive rights: Access to birth control and abortion.

• Challenging gender norms: Questioning societal expectations about women’s roles in family, work, and society.

• Addressing sexual violence and harassment.

Achievements:

• Title IX (1972): Gender equity in education.

• Roe v. Wade (1973): Legalized abortion (later overturned in 2022, but was a major achievement of the wave).

• Greater awareness and legal protections against workplace discrimination (e.g., Equal Pay Act 1963).

• Expansion of feminist discourse to sexuality, family, and culture.

wave three

Events that kicked it off:

• Backlash against perceived limitations of second-wave feminism (white, middle-class focus).

• Emergence of women of color, LGBTQ+, and intersectional critiques (e.g., Kimberlé Crenshaw’s work).

• Riot Grrrl movement and cultural feminism in media, music, and literature.

Main goals:

• Intersectionality: Addressing race, class, sexuality, and gender together.

• Body positivity: Challenging unrealistic beauty standards.

• Sexual liberation: Reclaiming sexual agency and freedom of expression.

• Diversity in leadership: Representation in media, politics, and business.

Achievements:

• Greater inclusion of women of color and LGBTQ+ voices in feminist discourse.

• Expanded conversations about identity, media, and sexuality.

• Legal gains in reproductive rights, workplace protections, and recognition of sexual harassment.

wave four

Events that kicked it off:

• The #MeToo movement (2017) and viral campaigns against sexual harassment and assault.

• Social media as a tool for feminist organizing and visibility.

• Continuing awareness of systemic inequalities in work, politics, and culture.

Main goals:

• Combat sexual harassment and assault online and offline.

• Digital activism for visibility of marginalized voices.

• Intersectional justice: Race, gender identity, LGBTQ+ rights, disability rights.

• Challenging patriarchal culture in media, politics, and institutions.

Achievements (ongoing):

• Widespread cultural awareness of sexual harassment and systemic sexism.

• Accountability for powerful men in media, politics, and business.

• Amplification of global feminist solidarity through digital activism.

• Ongoing campaigns for gender pay equity, reproductive rights, and trans rights.

Who were the first feminist thinkers? What did they advocate for? How was this radical?

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797, England)

• Key work: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

• Why radical:

  • Challenged the widely held belief that women were naturally inferior to men, Argued that denying education to women harmed both individuals and society, Suggested that women should be treated as rational beings, not just domestic caretakers

Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793, France)

Key work: Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791)

Why radical: Directly confronted the male-dominated French Revolution’s principles, pointing out that “liberty and equality” excluded women, Called for the inclusion of women as full citizens, which was seen as threatening to existing power structures

 Sojourner Truth (1797–1883, U.S.)

• Key work: Famous speeches, including Ain’t I a Woman? (1851)

• Why radical: Highlighted that feminist movements often ignored women of color, Linked racial justice and gender equality in a way few at the time were willing to do

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902, U.S.)

Key work: Declaration of Sentiments (1848) at Seneca Falls

Why radical: Publicly challenged the legal and social norms that treated women as property, Called for women to participate fully in politics and law-making

Cult of domesticity

was a set of 19th-century cultural norms in the United States and Britain that defined the ideal role of women, particularly middle- and upper-class white women. It was a major social ideology during the first wave of feminism, and it shaped expectations of gender roles for decades.

Why did the first wave draw heavily on religion?

First-wave feminists drew on religion to gain legitimacy, appeal to shared moral values, leverage existing reform networks, and frame women’s equality as compatible with social and divine order. Religion was both a strategic tool and a cultural lens through which women could argue for rights.

Feminine Mystique

revealed that the “perfect” domestic life was emotionally and intellectually unfulfilling for many women, and it called for a society that allowed women to realize their full human potential beyond the home.

Womanism, multiracial feminism – why did these types of feminism form?

Womanism and multiracial feminism formed as critiques of mainstream (often white, middle-class) feminism, which tended to ignore the experiences of women of color, poor women, and working-class women. These approaches highlight how race, class, gender, and other social categories intersect to shape oppression and activism.

Division of labor

Division of labor refers to the way tasks and responsibilities are distributed among members of a society, group, or household. In sociology, economics, and feminist theory, it often comes up in discussions of gender, work, and inequality.

What is the new mestiza consciousness?

concept developed by Gloria Anzaldúa in her book Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987). It describes a way of thinking and being that embraces multiple identities, cultures, and ways of knowing, especially for people living between worlds—culturally, racially, linguistically, or socially.

How does the prison industrial complex harm women? 

the network of prisons, policing, and profit-driven incarceration—harms women in multiple, intersecting ways, especially women of color, poor women, and marginalized communities.

How do social class and feminism intersect?

women’s experiences of oppression are shaped not only by gender but also by economic status, labor conditions, and access to resources. Understanding this intersection helps explain why feminism cannot be “one-size-fits-all.”

How is the fourth wave distinct from the previous three?

The fourth wave is digital, intersectional, and globally connected, with a strong focus on combatting harassment and cultural patriarchy, distinguishing it from earlier waves that focused more on legal rights, workplace equity, and identity politics.

Is it better to change the system or burn it down?

Reform alone can entrench injustices; total destruction alone often creates chaos and harm. Most effective movements use a mix: win immediate changes that reduce harm now while building alternatives that make the old system obsolete.

What does Beauvoir mean when she says that women are Other? Why? How does this influence relations between men and women?

Women being “Other” highlights that gender inequality is systemic, maintained through cultural, social, and symbolic structures, which shapes power dynamics, roles, and expectations between men and women.

Has work liberated women from male domination?

“partially, but not completely”—work has provided some opportunities for autonomy and empowerment, but it has not fully liberated women from male domination, because economic and social structures still reproduce gender inequality.

How has the demand of ‘equal pay for equal work’ played out?

“equal pay for equal work” has been a longstanding goal of feminist and labor movements, but its implementation has been partial and uneven, reflecting persistent gender, racial, and class inequalities.

What does hooks say may be the issue that unites all women?

bell hooks argues that the issue that may unite all women is the struggle against sexism and patriarchal domination, rather than assuming all women share the same experiences or social position.