Unit 3 Learning

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new & relatively enduring information or behaviors

habituates

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes & they look away sooner

associative learning

learning that certain evens occur together

classical conditioning - two stimuli

operant conditioning - a response & its consequence

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an UCS

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally -naturally & automatically- triggers an UCR

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally NS that, after association with an UCS comes to trigger a CR

acquistion

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one likes a NS & an UCS so that the NS begins triggering the CR

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

higher order conditioning extinction

a procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS, aka second-order conditioning

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened CR

(stimulus) generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in the other, similar situations

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS & other stimuli that have not been associated with a CS. (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associators, such as between taste & nausea, that have survival value

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, & that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (aka the Skinner box) containing a bar or key to obtain food or water reinforcers; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer & closer approximations of the desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus; a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus; a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

primary reinforcers

innately reinforces stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcers

(aka a secondary reinforcer) a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s experiment.

latent learning

learning that occurs but it is apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

observational learning

(aka social learning) learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing & imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation & empathy

prosocial behaviors

anti-social behaviors

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

cross-sectional studies

research that compares people of different ages of the same point & time

longitudinal studies

research that follows & retests the same people over (a long) period of time.

3 Major Themes; Nature & Nurture

how does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development? How have your nature and nurture influence your life story?

3 Major Themes; Continuity & Stages

3 Major Themes; Stability & Change

which of our traits persists through life? How do we change as we age?

Teratogens

agents such as chemicals or viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development & cause harm. (like alcohol, raw food, mercury, & drugs)

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away from the stimulus sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively (mostly nature) uninfluenced by experience.

critical period

an optimal period early in the lifespan of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

fetal alcohol syndrome

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

sex

in psychology, biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, & intersex

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, & behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex (gender identity) (which may be different)

intersex

possessing both male & female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females & males. Females typically have 2 X chromosomes while males typically have 1. An X chromosome from both parents produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, produces a male child.

Testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. although both males & females have it, the additional testosterone in males stimulants the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period & the development male sex characteristics during puberty.

Estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amount by females than males.

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structure (ovaries, testes, & external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary Sex Characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as females breasts & hips, male voice quality, & body hair

Spermarche

the first ejaculation ~14 years of age

Menarche

the first menstrual period, typically occurring around age 12.

Self-Concept

all our thought & feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “who am i“

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson the adolescents task is to solidify a sense of self by testing & integrating various roles

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (ex. employee listens to boss, child listens to parent)

Gender Roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, & traits for men & women

Sexual Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.

Gender Identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combo of female & male, regardless of whether it aligns with their assigned sex at birth, & the social affiliation that may result from this identity.

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing & imitating & by being rewarded or punished

Gender Typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Androgyny

displaying traditionally masculine & feminine psychological characteristics

Sexuality

our thought, feelings, & actions related to our physical attraction to another (gay, straight, bi, hetero or homo)

Asexual

hearing no sexual attraction towards others

Social Scripts

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Sexual Orientation

according to the APA (2015), “a person’s sexual & emotional attraction to another person & the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction“

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes & interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions & motor activities (ex. object permanence, stranger anxiety)

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (like peek-a-boo, babies outgrow this typically by 8 months)

Egocentric

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2-6 or 7) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete knowledge (egocentrism, animism)

Conservation

the principle (Piaget concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, & number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Concrete Operational

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from ~7 to 11 years) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events. (reversibility, mathematical transformations, conservation)

Formal Operational

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning ~12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Scaffold

in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking. myself - myself w/help - can’t myself

Theory of Mind

people’s ideas about their own & other’s mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, & thoughts & the behaviors these might predict (putting yourself in someone else’s shoes)

Ecological Systems Theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using 5 nested systems (microsystems; mesosystems; ecosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences