Anatomy Exam 1

Inspection

Looking

Palpation

Touching

Auscultation

Listening

Percussion

Listening and tapping

Histology

Examination of tissues with microscope

Histopathology

Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Cytology

Study of structure and function of cells

Hippocrates

Greek physician; “Father of medicine”; Established a code of ethics (Hippocratic Oath)

Aristotle

Believed diseases had supernatural or physical causes; Believed complex structures were built from simpler parts

Claudius Glen

Did animal dissections because use of cadavers was banned

Robert Hooke

Made many improvements to compound microscope - two lenses: ocular lens (eyepiece) and objective lens (near specimen)

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Concluded that “all organisms were composed of cells”

Inductive Method

Making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions; How the knowledge of anatomy is obtained

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Investigator formulates a hypothesis - an educated speculation or possible answer to the question; Physiological knowledge gained by this

Falsifiability

If we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong

Sample Size

Number of subjects in a study

Controls

Control group resembles treatment group but does not receive treatment

Psychosomatic effects

Effects of subject’s state of mind on his/her physiology; tested by giving placebo to control group

Experimenter Bias

The unintentional influence of the experimenter's expectations, beliefs, or preconceived notions on the outcome of a study or research experiment; Can be avoided with double-blind study

Statistical Testing

Provides a statement of probability that treatment was effective

Peer Review

Critical evaluation by other experts in the field by using verification and repeatability of results (Scientific journals, case control studies, and textbooks)

Scientific Fact

Information that can be independently verified

Theory

An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypothesis; Summarizes what we know and suggests directions for further study

Law of Nature

Generalization about the way matter and energy behave resulting from inductive reasoning and repeated observations

Evolution

Change in genetic composition of population of organisms (Ex: development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics)

Selection Pressures

Forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals more than others (Ex: faster predators resulting in faster prey, smarter predators resulting in smarter prey, and opposable thumbs of predators)

Adaptations

Inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to pressures and that enable organism to succeed (Ex: better camouflage of prey)

Primate Features

Mobile Shoulders: better movement among branches

Opposable thumbs and prehensile hands: grasp branches and manipulate objects

Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision: depth perception

Color vision: find ripe fruit

Bipedalism Adaptations

Skeletal and muscular modifications

Changes to family structure

Hierarchy of complexity

Atoms, Molecules, Macromolecules, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organs, Organ Systems, Organism

Reductionism

Large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components

Holism

“Emergent properties” of the whole organism cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts

Characteristics of Life

Organization: living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

Cellular composition: living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

Metabolism: internal chemical reactions

Responsiveness: ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)

Movement: of organisms and/or of substances within the organism

Homeostasis: maintaining relatively stable internal conditions

Development: differentiation and growth

Reproduction: producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring

Evolution: changes in genes

Physiological Variation

Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics and environment

Anatomical Variation

presence or absence or specific features

Homeostasis

The ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Negative Feedback Loop

Body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it (Ex: Dilation of blood vessels to allow for heat loss, Constriction of blood vessels to allow for heat gaining, and increasing blood pressure)

Positive Feedback Loop

Self-amplifying cycle that leads to greater change in the same direction (Ex: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, runaway fever, and generation of nerve signals)

Receptor

Structure that senses change in the body (Ex: stretch receptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating Center

Control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (Ex: cardiac center of the brain)

Effector

Cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (Ex: heart)

Gradients

A difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points; Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients

Which of the following is the most likely to lead to disease?

Positive feedback loop

Chemicals ‘flowing up’ the concentration gradient instead of down

Negative feedback loops

All of the above

Radiograph (X-rays)

Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body; dense tissue appears white (Ex: Good for broken bones)

CT Scan (Computed tomography)

Low intensity X-rays and computer analysis with slice type sharp images (Ex: Good for head injury with metal implants present)

MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging)

Superior quality to CT scan and no X-ray; Best for soft tissue (Ex: good for head injury without metal implants present)

PET scan (Positron emission tomography)

Assesses metabolic state of tissue; Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment (Ex: good for diagnosing Alzheimer’s)

Ultrasound (Sonography)

High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs (Ex: good for if a woman is pregnant)

Louis Pasteur

Refuted the idea of spontaneous generation - living things arising from nonliving matter

Components of Cell Theory

All organisms composed of cells and cell products

Cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life

An organism’s structure and functions are due to activities of cells

Cells come only from preexisting cells

Cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities

Squamous

thin, flat, scaly

Cuboidal

squarish-looking; secretion and absorption

Columnar

Taller than wide; absorption and secretion - most are ciliated

Polygonal

Irregularly angular shapes, multiple sides; epithelial tissue (surface covering of all body structures)

Stellate

Star-like; nerves/neurons

Spheroid to ovoid

Round to oval; lot of WBCs

Discoidal

Disc-shaped; RBCs

Fusiform

Thick in middle, tapered toward the end; muscles

Fibrous

Thread-like; scar tissue formed from fibrinogen (non-soluble protein that forms in response to bleeding and blood clots)

Limit on cell size

An overly large cell cannot support itself, may rupture (most human cells about 10-15 micrometers in diameter)

Membrane molecules that are lipids

Phospholipids (75% of membrane lipids)

Cholesterol (Holds phospholipids still and can stiffen membrane)

Glycolipids (Contributes to glycocalyx)

Functions of membrane proteins

Receptor: binds to chemical messengers

Enzyme: breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect

Channel: constantly open and allows solutes to pass into and out of the cell

Gated Channel: opens and closes to allow solutes through only at certain times

Cell-identity marker: distinguishes body cells from foreign cells

Cell-adhesion molecule: binds one cell to another

Second messenger system steps

1. A messenger such as epinephrine binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane
2. Receptor releases a G protein which then travels freely in the cytoplasm and can go on to step 3 or have various other effects on the cell
3. G protein binds to an enzyme, adenylate cyclase, in the plasma membrane. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), the second messenger
4. cAMP activates a cytoplasmic enzyme called a kinase
5. Kinases add phosphate groups to other cytoplasmic enzymes. This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, leading to varied metabolic effects in the cell.

Glycocalyx

Fuzzy coat external to plasma membrane; Functions: protection, cell adhesion, immunity to infection, fertilization, defense against cancer, embryonic development, transplant compatibility

Microvilli

Extensions of the membrane that act as a brush border to improve absorption

Cilia

Hair-like processes (7 to 10 micrometers long)

Single, nonmotile: found on nearly every cell (balance in inner ear and light detection in retina)

Multiple nonmotile: sensory cells of nose

Motile: ducts of testes, uterine tubules, respiratory tract, and ventricles of brain

Axoneme

Core of motile cilium; has 9 + 2 structure of microtubules

What disease is the mucociliary escalator essentially broken?

Cystic Fibrosis: The cells create but fail to install chloride pumps in the plasma membrane which leads to an inadequate saline layer then thick mucus plugs pancreatic ducts and respiratory tract

Passive Mechanism

Require no ATP (Ex: filtration, diffusion, osmosis)

Active Mechanism

Consumes ATP (ex: active transport and vesicular transport)

Factors affecting diffusion rate through a membrane

Temperature: increase temperature = increase rate

Molecular weight: increase molecular weight = decrease rate

Steepness of concentrated gradient: increase difference = increase rate

Membrane surface area: increase area = increase rate

Membrane permeability: increase permeability = increase rate

3 Kinds of Carriers

Uniport: Carries one type of solute (ex: calcium pump)

Symport: Carries two or more solutes simultaneously in same direction (ex: sodium-glucose transporters)

Antiport: Carries two or more solutes in opposite directions (ex: sodium-potassium pump

Facilitated Diffusion

Carrier moves solute down its concentration gradient; Solute attaches to binding site, carrier changes shape, and the solute is released on the other side

Primary Active Transport

Carrier moves solute through a membrane up its concentration gradient; Carrier protein uses ATP for energy

Secondary Active Transport

Carrier moves solute through membranes but only uses ATP indirectly

Na-K Pump

Exchanges 3 Na- for 2 K+; Keeps K+ concentration higher and Na+ concentration lower within the cell than in ECF; Maintains a negatively charged resting membrane potential

Endocytosis

Vesicular processes that bring material into the cell

Exocytosis

Discharging material from the cell, utilizes motor proteins energized by ATP

Pinocytosis

“Cell drinking,” taking in droplets of ECF containing molecules useful in the cell; membrane caves in, then pinches off pinocytic vesicle

Membranous Organelles

Nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex

Non-membranous organelles

Ribosomes, centrosomes, centrioles, basal bodies

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (produces phospholipids and proteins and synthesizes proteins from other organelles) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (synthesizes steroids and other lipids, detoxifies drugs, stores calcium) are functionally different parts of the same network

Ribosomes

Read coded genetic messagaes (mRNA) and assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the code

Destinations of membrane bound golgi vesicles

Some vesicles become lysosomes

Some vesicles migrate to plasma membrane and fuse it

Some become secretory vesicles that store a protein product for later release

Peroxisomes

Resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes and are produced by endoplasmic reticulum; In all cells, but abundant in liver and kidney, Function: To use molecular oxygen to oxide organic

Inclusions

Stored cellular products: Glycogen, granules, pigments, and fat droplets

Foreign bodies: Viruses, intracellular bacteria, dust particles, and other debris phagocytized by a cell

Components of DNA

Nitrogenous base, Sugar, and Phosphate groups

Rosalind Franklin

Person responsible for taking an x-ray of DNA and as a result helping the shape of DNA being discovered

How many chromosomes in most human cells?

46

How many chromosome pairs?

23

How many autosome vs sex chromosomes?

22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes

Purines

Adenine (A)

Guanine (G)

Pyrimidines

Cytosine (C)

Thymine (T)

Uracil (U)

DNA Bases

A, G, T, C

RNA Bases

A, G, U, C

Gene

Segment of DNA coding for the synthesis of a specific protein

Genome

All the genes of one person (only about 2% of total DNA, other 98% is noncoding DNA)

Chromatin

Fine filamentous DNA material complexed with proteins

Histones

Proteins crucial for DNA packing

Nucleosome

Core particle: Histone cluster with DNA (1.5 turns) around it

Linker DNA: short segment of DNA connecting core particles