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Central Dogma
The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.
Griffith's Experiments
Demonstrated transformation in bacteria, where genetic material from dead bacteria can be taken up by living bacteria.
Baltimore Classification of Viral Genomes
Classifies viruses based on genome type, structure, and replication strategy into seven groups.
Conjugation
Bacterial genetic transfer where a plasmid integrates into the chromosome of the recipient cell.
Meiosis
Cell division process in sexually reproducing organisms resulting in four unique gametes with half the chromosome number.
Recombination
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis, increasing genetic variation.
Telomeres
Protective caps at the end of chromosomes that shorten with each cell division, linked to aging.
Transformation
Unidirectional transfer of extracellular DNA into recipient bacterial cells.
Operons
Clusters of genes transcribed together in prokaryotes, allowing coordinated gene regulation.
Lysogenic Cycle
Viral replication cycle where the phage DNA integrates into the host chromosome as a prophage.
Trisomy
Having an extra chromosome.
Monosomy
Missing a chromosome.
Trisomy 21, 13, 18
Only trisomies compatible with life.
Triploidy
Having three sets of chromosomes.
Binary Fission
Asexual reproduction in prokaryotes.
Mitosis
Asexual reproduction in eukaryotes.
Nucleus
Oversees cell functions and gene transcription.
Nuclear Envelope
Phospholipid bilayer with nuclear pores.
Nucleolus
Site of protein synthesis.
Chromatin
DNA state in the nucleus.
Heterochromatin
Densely packed, inactive chromatin.
Euchromatin
Loosely packed, active chromatin.
Chromosome Staining
Process to visualize chromosomes.
Metacentric
Centromere in the middle of the chromosome.
Submetacentric
Centromere between middle and end.
Acrocentric
Centromere close to the end.
Telocentric
Centromere at the end.
DNA Cloning
Amplification and propagation of DNA sequences.
Vectors
Carry DNA into a new organism for cloning.
Plasmids
Circular DNA used for cloning.
Transformation
Process to introduce foreign DNA into host cells.
Phage Lambda
A temperate phage used in cloning.
Cosmid Vector
Clones large DNA inserts.
Artificial Chromosomes
Used for cloning large DNA fragments.
Mendel's Laws
Principles of inheritance including dominance and segregation.
Punnett Square
Tool to predict genetic outcomes of crosses.
Monogenic Disorders
Disorders caused by a mutation in a single gene.
Incomplete Dominance
Heterozygous phenotype is intermediate.
Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on sex chromosomes.
Transcription
Synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
RNA Polymerase
Enzyme for RNA synthesis in prokaryotes.
Sigma Factor
The factor that gives the enzyme specificity, now known as the holoenzyme, allowing the polymerase to identify the correct start point.
Consensus Sequences
Specific sequences in prokaryotic promoters, TTGACA (~35 bases) and TATAAT (~10 bases) before the transcription starting point, which must be similar in all promoters.
Sigma Factor Heterogeneity
Not all sigma factors are the same; they recognize different consensus sequences, e.g., sigma factor 70 recognizes -35 and -10, while sigma factor 54 recognizes -24 and -12.
Transcription Bubble
The region where RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA at the -10 box, rich in adenine and thymine, to synthesize RNA.
Polycistronic mRNA
Prokaryotic mRNA that encodes information in three-letter codons, starting with AUG (Start codon) and ending with a stop codon (UAA), allowing the ribosomes to string amino acids together.
Termination
The dissociation of the RNA polymerase holoenzyme complex from mRNA, signaled by terminator sequences forming a hairpin loop structure.
Translation
The synthesis of polypeptide chains from single amino acids directed by mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA, and amino acids, involving initiation, elongation, and termination steps.
Genetic Drift
The fluctuation of allele frequencies in a gene pool due to chance events, more pronounced in small populations, affecting genetic diversity.
Founder Effect
Occurs when a small population establishes a new colony, leading to different gene ratios compared to the original population, common in isolated groups like the Amish.
Directional Selection
A type of natural selection where a particular trait confers a survival advantage, leading to an increase in its frequency in a population over time.
Phenotypic Plasticity
The ability of a single genotype to produce multiple phenotypes in response to environmental variation.
Control of Gene Expression
Mechanisms regulating how genes are turned on or off in response to environmental cues.
Human Genome Project
Research initiative aiming to map and understand the genetic material in humans.
Encode Project
Project focused on exploring the non-coding regions of the human genome and their regulatory roles.
Epigenetic Regulation
Heritable changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
Nuclear Organization
Highly organized structure of genetic material within the nucleus.
Histone Code Hypothesis
Concept that specific combinations of histone modifications regulate gene expression.
DNA Methylation
Addition of methyl groups to DNA, often at CpG sites, influencing gene expression.
Core Promoters
Regulatory elements upstream of gene coding sequences, including promoter sequences.
Epigenetic Crosstalk
Interaction of various epigenetic mechanisms to regulate gene expression.
Non-Coding RNA
RNA molecules that play a role in epigenetic regulation and gene expression.
Genomic Imprinting
Epigenetic process silencing specific genes from each parent.
Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance
Non-genetic inheritance of epigenetic tags across generations.
Endocrine Disruptors & Male Fertility
Impact of environmental factors on epigenetic control of male fertility.
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