AP Psychology Unit 3 Development and Learning (updated for 24/25 SY)

Chronological development

A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred

Lifespan development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span

Nature and nurture

the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes

Continuous development

view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills

Discontinuous development

view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fine motor coordination

- involves small muscle groups

- usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands

Gross motor coordination

-- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

Rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Critical periods

Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place

Sensitive periods

time periods when specific skills develop most easily

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

Growth spurt

The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Spermarche

first ejaculation

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Mental symbols

represent objects in the real world

Pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Animism

Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life.

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Theory of mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

Concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Systematic thinking

approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion

Formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Abstract thinking

capacity to understand hypothetical concepts

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

Crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Syntax

Sentence structure

Cooing

early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

Babbling

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds

One-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Overgeneralization of language rules

Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed"

Ecological systems theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

Microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

Mesosystem

connections between microsystems

Exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

Macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Chronosystem

historical changes that influence the other systems

Authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

Authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

Attachment styles

The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

Secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

Insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

Avoidant attachment

attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others

Anxious attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style

disorganized attachment

characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused

Temperment

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Separation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs

Parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

Pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Imaginary Audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

Personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Stage theory of psychosocial development

Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality

Trust vs. mistrust

Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Initiative v. guilt

3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves

Industry v. Inferiority

4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior

Identity v. role confusion

5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction

Intimacy v. isolation

6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

Integrity v. despair

8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life)

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home.

Achievement (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration.

Diffusion (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity

Foreclosure (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration

Moratorium (adolescent development)

Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration

racial and ethnic identity

the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership

Sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Religious identity

a sense of belonging to a religious group

Occupational identity

Occupations that we engage in define who we are

Familial identity

the sense of self as always connected to family and others

Possible selves

images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

Behavioral perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Association

any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another