Research Methods Exam 1

Research Consumer

Reads, evaluates, and applies research

• Allows us to ask appropriate questions and apply findings to our lives

Research Producer

Conducts basic and applied research

• Actively informs communal knowledge

Basic Research

Enhances general knowledge (how do things work?)

Applied research

Addresses practical problems

• Creates new products, technologies, or processes

Scientific Method

Formulate theory, ask research question, design research study, develop hypothesis, collect and analyze data, share results 

Theory

A general set of statements that describe how variables relate

GOAL: To explain, predict and understand a phenomena

Generally broader in scope and can encompass multiple hypotheses, whereas a hypothesis is specific to a particular situation or observation

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or explanation for an observable phenomenon, often formulated as part of research

Research Question

Answerable question that addresses a problem

(does NOT make predictions)

Research Design

Overall strategy chosen to accurately address question

GOAL: effectively address research question, blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

Data

Set of observations collected for analysis

SUPPORTS/STRENGTHENS a theory/can extend to further hypothesis

Revise theory/research design if it does not support theory

Confounds

Alternative explanations for an outcome

Being swayed by a good story

The tendency of individuals to accept narratives or anecdotes as truth, often without critical evaluation or supporting evidence.

Example: Stories often evoke strong emotions, making them memorable and impactful. This emotional connection can lead individuals to accept the narrative as truth, even if it lacks factual support.

Availability Heuristic

Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind

Driven by: Recent events, vivid memories, media coverage, personal experience

Impact: May lead to overestimating the probability of memorable but rare events

Bias Blind Spot

Being biased about being biased

People believe they are less biased than others, but tend to underestimate their personal bias

Trusting authority

Consider background/credentials

Scientific evidence = good, personal experience = bad

4 Types of Research Info

Empirical Journal Articles, review journal articles, edited books, full length books

Empirical Journal Articles

Peer reviewed manuscripts that describe new, empirical data (PRIMARY SOURCE)

• Info is detailed enough so that other researchers can replicate the study

• Research studies are being reported for the 1ST TIME

Review Journal Article

Peer reviewed manuscripts that describe empirical data that’s ALREADY PUBLISHED ON THE SUBJECT

• Summary of all published studies of a particular research area

• Uses meta-analysis to combine many studies statistically

Edited Books

Books compromised of chapters on a common topic, each chapter by a different author

Each chapter SUMMARISES a body of research + theory

Full Length Books

Contains description of research written by ONE PERSON (or several if collaboration)

NOT common in psych

Abstract

Summary of an article

Intro

Explains topic, theoretical/empirical background, specific research hypothesis/goals for the study

Methods

Explains how study was conducted (design, participants, materials, procedure)

Results

Describes statistical tests used and quantitative/qualitative results

Parenthetical Citation (One Author)

Red40 caused behavioral issues in 40% of elementary school children (Hampton, 2025)

Narrative Citation (One Author)

Hampton (2025) suggests that Red40 caused behavioral issues in 40% of elementary school children

Parenthetical Citation (Two Authors)

Uses & symbol between 2 last names

Red40 caused behavioral issues in 40% of children (Hampton & Jones, 2025)

Narrative Citation (Two Authors)

Uses ‘and’ between two last names

Hampton and Jones (2025) suggest that red40 causes behavioral issues in children. 

Parenthetical Insert (3+ Authors)

List the name of the first author plus ‘et al.’ in every citation

One study found that TV usage leads to poor vision later in life (Hampton et al., 2025)

Narrative Citation 3+ Authors

List the name of the first author plus ‘et al.’ or alternatives (and colleagues) in every citation

Hampton et al. (2025) reported that 40% of elementary students have bad behavioral issues

Hampton and colleagues (2025) reported 40% of elementary school children have behavioral issues

Respect for Persons

Informed consent

Beneficence (concern for welfare)

Assess potential harm to participants and potential benefit to society

Justice

Who bears the burden of research? Is it just one group? Will they receive the benefits

High Risk, High Benefit

Do study with extra precaution/consideration

Deception

Deliberately misleading participants about a study’s design or purpose

Omission

Deliberately holding details from participants

Comission

Lying to participants

Variables

Something that changes/varies (must have 2+ levels/values)

Constant

Does not vary (sample of U.S adults)

Measured variable

Observed and recorded (age, height)

Manipulated variable

Controlled (mood, test performance)

Conceptual Variables

Abstract, theoretical concepts

Sleep: Can be measured using REM chart or self report

Happiness: Can be measured by serotonin levels or self report

Operational Variables

The specific way in which the conceptual variable is defined and measured

Texting while driving is operationalized as how many times a phone is picked up or how many times texts were sent

Frequency Claim

Describes a rate/degree of a single variable

42% of Love Island viewers voted for Amaya Papaya

Association Claims

One level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another

2 measured variables

CANNOT tell us causation

Variables are ‘correlated’ or ‘related’

Positive Association

As X increases, Y increases

As X decreases, Y decreases

Negative Association

As X increases, Y decreases

As X decreases, Y increases

Casual Claim

One variable is responsible for the change in the other variable

2+ Variables

1 measured and 1 manipulated variable

Can claim A caused B

Internal Validity

Study’s method ensures that there are no plausible CONFOUNDING VARIBABLES for the change in B; A is the only thing that is changed

High _____validity means that any observed differences in performance are directly attributable to the study, not other factors such as participant motivation or prior knowledge.

Construct Validity

How well the variables in the study are measured or manipulated

How well the conceptual variable is operationalized

Researchers must get very creative in developing ways to validly measure these abstract constructs

External Validity

The degree to which results of the study (and conclusions) generalize to a larger population

Statistical Validity

Extent to which study’s statistical conclusions are accurate and reasonable 

Addresses strength of result/occurrence by chance

Appropriate statistical test

Covariance

Study’s results show that A is associated with B

High levels of A go with high levels of B

Temporal Precedence

Study’s method ensures A comes first in time, before B

A study tracks how many hours students’ study before their exams, so studying occurs before scored were recorded

Interval

Equal intervals between levels with a true zero

Zero does NOT mean nothing (ex. temperature)

Ratio

#s are ordered with equal intervals, where zero means the absence of a variable/truly means NOTHING/NONE (example, money)

Reliability

The consistency of a measure, indicating that repeated measurements yield the same results.

Test-Retest Reliability

Measure gives consistent scores when used at different times

Interrater Reliability

Measure gives consistent results no matter who is observing or rating

Internal Reliability

A study participant gives a consistent pattern of answers, no matter how the question is phrased

Questions on a survey correlate well with each other

Validity

the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is intended to measure, ensuring accuracy in the results.

Face Validity

The extent to which a measure looks like what you want to be measured

Subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of conceptual variable

Example: Questions on a self-report test being relevant and accurately measuring job performance

Content Validity

The extent to which a measure contains all parts that the theory says it contains

Example: A math test that includes questions covering all relevant topics, such as algebra, geometry, and statistics, ensures content validity

Correlational Design

Measures the strength of relationship between two variables

Size of a number between 0 and 1/-1

Closer to 1 (positive OR negative) = strong correlation

Criterion Validity

The extent to which a measure is related to an outcome that it should be related to

Example: College entrance exams like the SAT or ACT exhibit high validity if students' scores are significantly correlated with their first-year GPA. This indicates that the test can predict future academic success.

A job aptitude test demonstrates ____ validity if its scores correlate positively with employees' actual job performance, as measured by supervisor ratings or productivity metrics. This shows that the test can effectively predict how well an employee will perform in their role.

Example of Criterion Validity

Known Groups Method

Examines whether scores on the measure can distinguish among a set of groups whose behavior is already known/understood

Example: The assessment of depression using a depression scale. If a group of individuals known to be depressed scores significantly higher on the depression scale than a group of individuals known to be not depressed, this would support the ____ method as a valid tool for measuring depression

Convergent Validity

A measure should correlate strongly with other measures of the same construct

Example: Correlating the scores on a personality test measuring introversion and scores on a measure of shyness

Discriminant Validity

A measure should correlate less strongly with other measures of different constructs

Example: Administering tests that measure conservatism and liberalism should yield low correlation scores. If individuals who score high on one also score high on the other, it suggests that the tests may not be effectively measuring different political ideologies.

Example of Discriminant Validity

A math exam and an English literature exam should ideally show little to no correlation. High correlation would indicate that the tests might be measuring similar cognitive abilities rather than distinct skills.

Theory vs Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an assumption made before any research has been done. It is formed so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.

A theory is a principle formed to explain the things already shown in data. Because of the rigors of experiment and control, it is much more likely that a theory will be true than a hypothesis.

Example of a Theory

Photosynthesis explains how plants convert light energy into chemical energy.

Example of a Hypothesis

If a plant receives more sunlight, then it will grow taller.

Falsifiability

A claim, theory, or hypothesis is capable of being proven false

Parsimony

The simplest explanation that accounts for the data is preferable

Probabilistic

An outcome isn’t guaranteed, it depends on probability or chance