Psychology - Psychopathology

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

The four definitions of abnormality include statistical deviation, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, and deviation from ideal mental health.

Define statistical deviation.

Statistical deviation refers to behaviours or characteristics that are rare or infrequent in the general population, indicating that they fall outside the norm. It is often used to identify what is considered abnormal based on statistical frequencies. Anything that falls outside the ‘golden mean’ is considered abnormal.

What are the strengths and limitations of statistical deviation as a definition of abnormality? (at least 2)

Strengths:

This definition provides a quantitative measure of abnormality meaning it is an objective way of assessing abnormality. This is a strength because an objective measurement is far more likely to produce reliable findings.

There are real life applications for the statistical definition of abnormality. For example, assessing somebody’s intellectual ability can be very useful as part of a clinical assessment of a patient. This means the definition is useful in clinical practice

Weaknesses:

Some abnormal behaviour is desirable. For example having a very high IQ would be considered abnormal according to this definition but it is not undesirable. Likewise, depression is relatively common yet undesirable. Therefore, it cannot distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours.

Cultural relativism; hard to apply to all cultures. Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may not be in another. This may create problems.

Define deviation from social norms.

Someone could be deemed as abnormal if they were to violate social norms within a society. The abnormal behaviour is seen as unpredictable causing observer discomfort.

What are the strengths and limitations of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?

Strengths:

This definition explains why different cultures have alternative ideas of what is abnormal and normal behaviour. It also takes into account that there is no universal rule about abnormality. This is a strengths because the definition doesn’t impose any bias.

Weaknesses:

Cultural relativism; social norms differ between cultures. For example, in some countries homosexuality is still illegal but in the rest of the world homosexuality is considered normal. This means abnormality is not standardised.

Era-dependency; social norms vary over time. For example, homosexuality was passed as a psychiatric disorder until 1960’s and now it is accepted. This means that reliance on this definition may have resulted in violations of human rights where people by standards of time are considered abnormal.

Define failure to function adequately.

When a person can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life and they fail to function adequately e.g. they are unable to maintain basic hygiene. Rosenhan’s criteria for this is: 1) When a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, 2) When a person experiences severe personal distress, and 3) When a person’s behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous.

What are the strengths of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

It considers the subjective personal experiences of the patient. This definition does not simply make a judgement without taking the personal viewpoint of the sufferer into consideration and instead considers the thoughts and feelings of the person experiencing the issue. This suggests that this definition is a useful model for assessing psychopathological behaviour.

What are the weaknesses of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

1) Abnormality is not always accompanied by dysfunction. For example, psychopaths can cause great harm yet still appear normal. Harold Shipman, an English doctor who killed over 200 of his patients didn’t display any features of dysfunction. This means that the definition is not a full explanation of abnormality.

2) There are times in people’s lives when it is normal to suffer distress and stop functioning normally. For example, when a parents dies, grieving is psychologically healthy to overcome loss. Therefore, the definition doesn’t consider situational factors.

Define deviation from ideal mental health.

Deviation from ideal mental health refers to the failure to meet the criteria for optimal mental/psychological functioning. Jahoda suggested we have good mental health when:

• We have a realistic view of the world

• We have good self esteem

• We are independent

• We can successfully work, love and enjoy leisure

• We have no symptoms of distress

• We are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately

• We self actualise

• We can cope with stress

What are the strengths of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?

The definition is very comprehensive (inclusive). It considers a wide range of criteria for mental health. In fact, it probably covers most of the reasons someone would seek help from mental health services. Therefore, this is the most holistic definition in explaining mental illness.

What are the weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?

• The criteria proposed by Jahoda is unrealistic. There are times when everyone will experience stress and negativity e.g. following the death of a loved one. In addition very few people self-actualise. Therefore, with the high standards set by this criteria, the number needed to be absent for diagnosis to occur must also be questioned.

• Some of Jahoda’s classifications are specific to Western European culture. For example, the emphasis on personal achievement would be considered self-indulgent in much of the world because the emphasis is on the individual rather than the family or the community. Therefore, the definition may be culture-bound.

What is a phobia?

An anxiety disorder which interferes with daily living. It is an instance of irrational fear that produces a conscious avoidance of the feared object. Symptoms must last for more than 6 months and it negatively impacts a person’s everyday life.

What are the behavioural characteristics of a phobia?

Panic - a phobic person may panic in response to their stimulus e.g. crying, screaming

Avoidance - they may go out of their way to avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus

Endurance - the sufferer remains in the presence of the phobic stimulus but experiences high anxiety.

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

Anxiety - an unpleasant state of high arousal which prevents the suffer from relaxing and make sit difficult to experience positive emotions.

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

The suffer will experience irrational thoughts that they are unable to control (obsessions).

If a sufferer sees a phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it (selective attention)

They may also experience cognitive distortions meaning their perceptions of the phobic stimulus are worse than it actually is.

Explain a phobia using the behaviourist approach.

Behaviourists believe that phobias are a learnt behaviour. Mowrer proposed a two-process model which states that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning. This means that we learn a phobia through associating something we initially have no fear with something that already triggers a fear response e.g. Little Albert study. We then maintain the phobia through negative reinforcement as every time a phobic situation is avoided, anxiety levels drop which acts as a reward and reinforces avoidance.

What are the strengths of the behaviourist theories in explaining phobias?

The behaviourist theories have been used to develop effective treatments like flooding and systematic desensitisation. SD helps people unlearn their fears using cc while flooding prevents people avoiding their phobias and stops the negative reinforcement from taking place. These treatments have been found to be successful meaning they have positive economic implications as people with extreme phobias are able to return to work and contribute to our tax systems which reduces the burned on institutions like the NHS.

What are the limitations of using the behaviourist approach in explaining phobias?

• The two process model ignores evolutionary explanation of the development of phobias. For example, some phobias like fear of snakes or the dark may have developed over time to aid survival. Therefore, the two-process model is not a full explanation of phobia acquisition.

• The two process model does not explain phobias we have not had any prior negative experiences with. For example, it does not explain someone having a phobia of snakes if they have never previously had any interaction with snakes. Therefore, this isn’t a full explanation.

What are the two treatments for phobias?

Systematic desensitisation and flooding.

Describe how systematic desensitisation is used in treating phobias? (AO1)

Systematic desensitisation is a behavioural therapy based on the principles of classical conditioning. It is also based on the idea that we cannot be relaxed and afraid at the same time so if we manage to stay relaxed in the presence of the thing we fear we will no longer fear it. This is called reciprocal inhibition. Systematic desensitisation happens by;

Step 1: the therapist teaching the patient relaxation methods like breathing exercises or mental imagery processes

Step 2: therapist and patient work together to construct a hierarchy of fearful situations via the patient imagining scenarios with each one causing more anxiety.

Step 3: the patient works through the hierarchy using the relaxation methods taught by the therapist. Once the patient is relaxed in that scenario they move up to the next one until the feared situation is mastered.

What is step 2 of systematic desensitisation?

The therapist and patient work together to create a hierarchy of fearful situations with the top being the most feared situation.

What is a strength of systematic desensitisation?

There is plenty of evidence to support the idea that SD helps reduce phobic anxiety. Bronson and Thorpe (2006) used a ten-week desensitisation programme to help 16 technophobic students. As compared to a control group, who had no SD, their anxiety levels were significantly lower at the end of the course. This suggests that SD is an effective treatment for phobias although the client has some control over the therapy which may be a factor in the effectiveness of the treatment.

What are the weaknesses of systematic desensitisation?

• It is effective in reducing the phobic behaviour but it is not always a cure. Some phobias initially improve but worsen again after a few months. This means that SD is not a permanent solution.

• Not effective for all phobias. Patients with phobias which have not developed through a personal experience e.g. heights are not effectively treated using systematic desensitisation. Some psychologists argue that certain phobias like heights have been developed as an evolutionary benefit. This is a limitation because it can be seen as reductionist as it ignores biological and evolutionary factors that may cause phobias.

Describe how flooding is used in treating phobias. (A01)

Flooding directly exposes clients to the objects or situations they fear which will allow them to see that there is no basis for their fear. It is based on the idea that anxiety reaches a peak and it cannot be maintained forever so it will have to reduce. There is no opportunity to avoid the stimulus and so the fear response becomes exctinct. In this way it counter-acts negative reinforcement.

What is a strength of flooding as a treatment for phobias?

Flooding is cost effective. Studies have found that flooding is highly effective and quicker than alternative treatments such as SD. Sometimes only one session is required in removing a phobia. This is a strength because flooding is a cost effective treatment for phobias.

What are the weaknesses of flooding?

• Flooding does not work for all phobias e.g. social phobias. This may be because social phobias have cognitive aspects which flooding does not acknowledge. Therefore, flooding may not be as effective as cognitive therapies for some phobias.

  • Although not unethical, flooding is very traumatic for patients. There are high attrition rates within flooding perhaps because the sessions are too traumatic for the patients to continue with. This is a limitation of flooding because it means that the treatment is not effective in treating phobias if people drop out.

What is a criticism of both flooding and systematic desensitisation?

When one phobia disappears, sometimes another one takes its place. This is called symptom substitution. The evidence for this however is inconclusive. This is a weakness because both treatments may not be a permanent cure for phobias.

What is depression?

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels. The two core symptoms are low mood and loss of interest in daily activities.

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

Activity levels - Sufferers of depression usually have reduced levels of energy, making them lethargic.

Disruption to sleep and eating - sufferers may experience insomnia, premature waking or an increased need for sleep. Appetite may also increase or decrease.

Aggression and self-harm - sufferers can become verbally or physically aggressive.

What are the emotional characteristics of depression?

Lowered mood - patients often describe themselves as ‘worthless’ and ‘empty’

Lowered self-esteem - sufferers will like themselves less than usual. This can be quite extreme with some sufferers describing s sense of self-loathing.

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

Poor concentration - they may find it difficult to stick to a task or make decisions.

Dwelling on the negative - may be inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and will have bias towards recalling unhappy memories

Poor memory

Describe Beck’s cognitive theory of depression.

Beck suggested some people are more vulnerable to depression than others. He suggested three parts to this cognitive vulnerability:

1) Faulty information processing - focusing on the negative aspects of a situation and blowing small problems out of proportion.

2) Negative self-schemas - interpreting information about ourselves in a negative way.

3) Negative triad - negative thoughts about the world, future and ourselves are linked

This pessimistic view becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

According to cognitive psychologists, what is the main factor causing depression?

Negative and irrational thought processes.