AP Psych ALL TERMS

(0-3 Updated as learn more)

Heredity (nature)

the transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to offspring through genes

Environment (nurture)

the sum of all external conditions that affect development, including especially the effects of learning

Genetic predisposition

the likelihood that a person has of developing a condition or trait based on their genetics

Natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Eugenics

the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics

Twin studies

research studies using identical twins in hopes of understanding the influence of nature versus nurture

Family studies

research studies which assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other on a specific trait

Adoption studies

research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

Central nervous system (CNS)

includes the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Somatic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Glial cell

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neuron (neural cell)

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Reflex arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action including at its simplest a sensory neuron and a motor neuron with a synapse between.

Sensory neuron

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the muscles and glands)

Interneurons

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

All or nothing principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

Depolarization

this occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it susceptible to fire an action potential

Refractory period

a period of inactivity, or resting state, after a neuron has fired

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Multiple Sclerosis

a disease that damages the myelin sheath, resulting in degeneration of muscle control

Myasthenia Gravis

an autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction (NMJ); a disorder in the transmission of impulses from nerve to muscle cell

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Excitatory neurotransmitters

promotes action potential

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibits action potential

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; linked to depression

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in alertness, attention, learning and mood regulation

Glutamate

an excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

GABA

an amino acid that serves as a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure; "morphine within"

Substance P

a neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenaline

a hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress; triggers "fight" or "flight" response

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

Melatonin

a hormone released by the pineal gland that regulates sleep and wake

Oxytocin

a hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding; associated with bonding

Psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

Agonist

a molecule that binds to a receptor site and 'mimics" a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

a molecule that blocks a neurotransmitter from activating its receptors

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Reuptake inhibitors

drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Opioids

drugs that depress neural activity; temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

a physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

withdrawal symptoms

physical illness and discomfort following the withdrawal of a drug

brain stem

the central core of the brain, where the spinal cord enters the skull; responsible for autonomic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular activating system (RAS)

regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal

reward center

a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

cerebellum

the hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

frontal lobe

the region of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead; associated with muscle movement, language, higher order thinking, and executive functioning

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

split brain research

study of patients with severed corpus callosum

specialization of hemispheres (left vs. right)

Left: logic, analytical, and language

Right: spatial, creative, facial recognition

Broca's area

an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

hemispheres of the brain

the human brain is divided into two halves called the left and right hemispheres (see specialization of hemispheres)

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and pituitary gland) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland, the "master" gland; helps regulate growth, metabolism, and numerous other bodily functions and processes

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

amygdala

two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

cortex specialization

different regions of the cerebral cortex have different functions

corpus collosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

occipital lobe

the region of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that processes visual information

temporal lobe

the region of the cerebral cortex above the ears (near temples) that is the primary receiving area for auditory information and enabling language processing

parietal lobe

the region of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position

contralateral organization

left hemisphere controls right side of body and vice versa; opposite side organization

brain plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

lesioning procedure

intentionally damaging or removing specific areas of the brain to treat certain disorders

sleep-wake cycle

a daily, naturally occurring 24-hour circadian rhythm of sleep and wake states regulated by a biological clock

cicadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

jet lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

Shift work disorder

a circadian rhythm sleep disorder due to work shifts being regularly scheduled during the usual sleep period; work shifts overlap with all or part of the sleep period

sleep stages

Stage 1 (NREM), Stage 2 (NREM), Stage 3 (NREM - Deep Sleep), and REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

REM (paradoxical sleep)

(rapid eye movement) - a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

activation synthesis theory (dreams)

suggests that dreams are caused by the physiological processes of the brain; suggests dreams are a result of random brain activity (activation) being interpreted and synthesized into meaningful experiences by the brain

consolidation theory (dreams)

the dream theory that suggests the brain transforms short-term memories into long-term memories; essentially strengthening and stabilizing neural connections to store information for later retrieval

memory consolidation (sleep)

memories are put into long-term storage during sleep, improving retention, declarative memory, motor skills, and perceptual skills